CSEC Chemistry: Section A – Principles of Chemistry Mr.

Khan

7. Acids, Bases and Salts

7.1
Acid – An acid is a substance that contains hydrogen ions that can be replaced by metal cations
or the ammonium cation to form a salt. An acid is a proton donor.
(Recall: H-atom = 1p 0n 1e. H+ ion = 1p 0n 0e. Therefore, H+ is considered as a proton)
Acid anhydride – An acid anhydride is a non-metallic oxide which dissolves in water to form an
acid.
Eg. CO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2CO3 (aq) (Carbonic Acid)
SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (aq) (Sulfuric Acid)
Base – A base is a proton acceptor. They are usually ammonia (NH3) or metal cations with oxide
(O2-) or hydroxide (OH-) anions.
Alkali – An alkali is base that dissolves in water forming OH- (aq) anions.
Salt – A salt is formed when metal cations or the ammonium cation take the place of some or all
of the replaceable Hydrogen ions of an acid.
Acidic Oxide – An Acidic Oxide is the oxide of some non-metals that react with alkalis to form
a salt and water only.
Eg. CO2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
Basic Oxide – A Basic Oxide is the oxide of a metal which reacts with acids to form a salt and
water only.
Eg. MgO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
Amphoteric Oxide – An amphoteric oxide is the oxide of some metals that react with both acids
and bases to form a salt and water only.
Egs. Al2O3 reacts with acids forming Al3+ salts and with bases forming AlO2- salts (Aluminates)
ZnO reacts with acids forming Zn2+ salts and with bases forming ZnO22- salts (Zincates)
PbO reacts with acids forming Pb2+ salts and with bases forming PbO22- salts (Plumbates)
ZnO (s) + 2HCl (aq) → H2O (l) + ZnCl2 (aq) (Zinc Chloride)
ZnO (s) + 2NaOH (aq) → H2O (l) + Na2ZnO2 (aq) (Sodium Zincate)
Neutral Oxide – A neutral oxide is the oxide of some non-metals that neither reacts with acids
nor bases. Examples are Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxide (NO), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
and Water.
CSEC Chemistry: Section A – Principles of Chemistry Mr. Khan

7.2
pH is a measure of the Hydrogen ion (H+) concentration (degree of acidity) in a solution. The pH
scale is a numbered scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 indicates that the solution is neutral. A pH of
less than 7 indicates that the solution is acidic. A pH of greater than 7 indicates that the solution
is alkaline. pH can be measured using universal indicators (paper or liquid). When placed in a
solution to be tested, the universal indicator changes to different colours which is then compared
with a colour chart that corresponds to different pH values. To get an accurate measure of pH, an
electronic pH meter can be used.
7.3
The strength of an aqueous acid or alkali can be determined by finding its pH and is dependent
on degree of ionization when dissolved in water.
A strong acid is fully ionized when dissolved in water. The acid molecules fully ionize making
the concentration of H+ ions very high leading to low pH values.
Egs. HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) Hydrochloric Acid
HNO3 (aq) → H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) Nitric Acid
H2SO4 (aq) → 2H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) Sulfuric Acid
H3PO4 (aq) → 3H+ (aq) + PO43- (aq) Phosphoric Acid
A weak acid is only partially ionized when dissolved in water. The acid molecules partially
ionize giving a mixture of acid molecules and H+ ions. The concentration of H+ ions is low
leading to pH values of < 7 to about 4.
Egs. CH3COOH (aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq) Ethanoic Acid
H2CO3 (aq) 2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) Carbonic Acid.
A strong alkali is fully ionized when dissolved in water. The alkali ions fully ionize making the
concentration of OH- ions very high leading to very high pH values.
Egs. NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Sodium Hydroxide
KOH (aq) → K+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Potassium Hydroxide
A weak alkali is only partially ionized when dissolved in water. The alkali molecules partially
ionize giving a mixture of alkali molecules and OH- ions. The concentration of OH- ions is low
leading to pH values of >7 to about 11.
Eg. NH3 (g) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq) Ammonia gas to Ammonium cation
CSEC Chemistry: Section A – Principles of Chemistry Mr. Khan

7.4
Reactions of non-oxidizing acids.
1) Reaction with reactive metals
Acids react with reactive metals to form a salt and Hydrogen gas.
Eg. Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Zn (s) + 2H+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + H2 (g) (ionic equation)
Hydrogen gas is a colourless, odourless gas. When a lighted splint is placed in the gas collected
in a test tube, a “pop” is heard.
2) Reaction with carbonates.
Acids react with carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas.
Eg. Na2CO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
CO32- (aq) + 2H+ (aq) → H2O (l) + CO2 (g) (ionic equation)
Carbon Dioxide gas is a colourless, odourless gas. When the gas is bubbled through colourless
lime water (Calcium Hydroxide solution), the lime water turns white (a white precipitate forms).
If excess gas is bubbled, the precipitate redissolves and the solution turns colourless.
3) Reaction with Hydrogen Carbonates.
Acids react with hydrogen carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas.
Eg. Mg(HCO3)2 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l) + 2CO2 (g)
HCO3- (aq) + H+ (aq) → H2O (l) + CO2 (g) (ionic equation)
4) Reaction with bases.
Acids react with bases to form salt and water. This is a neutralization reaction.
Egs. CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
CuO (s) + 2H+ (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + H2O (l) (ionic equation)
2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
OH- (aq) + H+ (aq) → H2O (l) (ionic equation)
CSEC Chemistry: Section A – Principles of Chemistry Mr. Khan

Real life reactions of acids.

1) The stomach contains HCl (aq). If the stomach produces too much acid, heartburn occurs.
Antacids are weak bases that are used to neutralize this excess acid. The most common weak
bases used in antacids are Aluminium Hydroxide ( Al(OH)3 ) and Magnesium Hydroxide
( Mg(OH)2 ) which react with the HCl to produce a salt and water, and Calcium Carbonate
(CaCO3), Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3) and Sodium Bicarbonate or Sodium Hydrogen
Carbonate (NaHCO3) which react with the HCl to produce a salt, water and Carbon Dioxide gas.
2) Baking powder is a mixture of Sodium Bicarbonate (Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate) and weak
acids. When added to dough, the moisture causes the weak base and weak acid to react forming a
salt, water and Carbon Dioxide gas in a neutralization reaction. The CO2 gas forms bubbles in
the dough causing it to rise.
3) Some types of fire extinguishers contain Sodium Bicarbonate solution with a Sulfuric Acid
compartment directly below the plunger. When the plunger if pressed, the Sulfuric Acid is
released into the Sodium Bicarbonate solution producing Carbon Dioxide gas which is forced out
of the fire extinguisher extinguishing the fire.
7.5
Examples of acids in living systems
1) Vitamin C or Ascorbic Acid is found in many fruits and vegetables. It is an essential Vitamin
that is included in the diet to prevent scurvy. Vitamin C is oxidized when heated. Therefore,
cooking destroys it. Vitamin C (a weak acid) is neutralized by Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate.
2) Methanoic Acid (formic acid) is the irritant that is present in ant stings. Since it is a weak acid,
ant stings can be treated by applying a weak base like Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate made into a
paste or Zinc Oxide present in calamine lotion.
3) Lactic Acid accumulates in muscle cells when strenuous activity is done. It forms when blood
is not able to supply enough Oxygen to muscle cells for aerobic respiration, so anaerobic
respiration occurs. It can prevent muscles from contracting properly.
4) Vinegar (Ethanoic Acid: CH3COOH) is used in food preservation. It provides an environment
of low pH that denatures or destroys enzymes that cause decay and prevents the growth of
microorganisms like bacteria and fungi.
5) Lime juice is used to remove rust stains from clothing. The H+ ions in the juice react with the
insoluble Iron (III) Oxide (Fe2O3) in the rust stain forming a soluble Fe3+ salt that can be washed
away from the clothing.
CSEC Chemistry: Section A – Principles of Chemistry Mr. Khan

7.6
Reactions of bases
1) Reaction with acids
Bases react with acids to form a salt and water in a neutralization reaction.
2) Reaction with Ammonium salts
Bases react with ammonium salts to produce a salt, water and ammonia gas.
Eg. When heated: (NH4)2SO4 (s) + Ca(OH)2 (s) → CaSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l) + 2NH3 (g)
When heated: 2NH4Cl (s) + CaO (s) → CaCl2 (s) + H2O (l) + 2NH3 (g)
NH3 (g) or ammonia gas is a colourless gas with a pungent odour. This gas turns moist red litmus
paper blue.
7.7
Solubilities of salts and bases
Salts
1) Sulfates – All sulfates are soluble in water except Barium, Lead and Calcium.
2) Nitrates – All nitrates are soluble in water.
3) Chlorides – All chlorides are soluble in water except Lead and Silver. In hot water, Lead
Chloride becomes soluble.
4) Carbonates – All carbonates are insoluble in water except Sodium, Potassium and
Ammonium.
Bases
1) Oxides – All are insoluble in water except Calcium, Potassium and Sodium which react to
form Hydroxides in water.
2) Hydroxides – All are insoluble in water except Sodium, Potassium and Ammonium. Calcium
Hydroxide is slightly soluble.
CSEC Chemistry: Section A – Principles of Chemistry Mr. Khan

Preparation of soluble salts

The method used for preparing a salt is mainly determined by its solubility in water.
1) Replacing H+ ions of an acid directly or indirectly by a metal or the ammonium cation. This is
seen in the following reactions where crystalline salts are produced:
a) Acid + reactive metal → H2 (g) + Salt
(Na, K and Ca metals must not be used in the above reaction as they are too reactive)
b) Acid + metal carbonate → CO2 (g) + H2O (l) + Salt
c) Acid + Base → H2O (l) + Salt
For methods involving (a), insoluble carbonates in (b), and insoluble bases in (c):
(i) Add solid reactant to the dilute acid in a beaker while stirring constantly with a stirring rod
until excess unreacted solid is seen. This indicates that all of the acid reactant has reacted, that is,
the acid is the limiting reagent.
(ii) Carry out filtration. The residue is the excess solid, that is, the excess of the non-acid reactant
in the reaction carried out. The filtrate is the required salt solution.
(iii) Carry out recrystallization. Place the filtrate in an evaporating dish and concentrate it by
gentle evaporating to remove some of the water. After, leave this concentrate to cool slowly
causing crystals to form.
For methods involving soluble carbonates in (b) and soluble bases in (c):
(i) Carry out titration. Add a measured volume of the alkali or soluble carbonate solution and
indicator in a conical flask. Add dilute acid to the burette and titrate.
(ii) Determine the accurate amount of acid that neutralizes the alkali or the soluble carbonate.
(iii) In an evaporation dish, add the measured volume of the alkali or soluble carbonate from part
(i) without any indicator. Then add the accurate amount of acid determined from part (ii).
(iv) Carry out recrystallization. Concentrate the solution in the evaporating dish by gentle
evaporating to remove some of the water. After, leave this concentrate to cool slowly causing
crystals to form.
2) Carrying out direct combination. This method is used to prepare anhydrous salts. It involves
one step whereby two elements are directly combined by heating.
Egs. 2Na (s) + Cl2 (g) → 2NaCl (s)
Fe (s) + S (s) → FeS (s)
CSEC Chemistry: Section A – Principles of Chemistry Mr. Khan

Preparation of insoluble salts

Insoluble salts are prepared by the process of precipitation. Two solutions of soluble salts are
mixed and one insoluble salt is produced as a precipitate. Filtration is carried out on the resulting
mixture. The residue is the required salt which is washed with distilled water to dissolve away
impurities. The residue is then dried.
Egs. To form BaSO4:
Ba(NO3)2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) → 2NaNO3 (aq) + BaSO4 (s)
Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) → BaSO4 (s) (ionic equation)
7.8
Uses and dangers of salts
1) Baking powder – See Section 7.4 above.
2) Calcium Carbonate – This is present naturally in limestone. It is used in the manufacture of
cement. Cement is used in the construction industry. The limestone is heated in a kiln where it
decomposes to form Calcium Oxide which is the main component of cement.
When heated, CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
3) Food preservation.
(i) Sodium Chloride – This is used to flavor foods and preserve meats and fish. The NaCl, via
osmosis, draws water out of the food cells. This results in water being unavailable for the
chemical reactions in the cells that cause decay. The NaCl, via osmosis, also draws water out of
microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) that cause decay, inhibiting their growth. The danger of
NaCl is that it has been linked to high blood pressure
(ii) Sodium Nitrite (NaNO2) / Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3) – These are used to preserve meat. They
kill bacteria which cause food poisoning and give the meat a red colour. The dangers of Sodium
Nitrate are that it has been implicated in causing brain damage in infants and also suspected to be
carcinogenic. Sodium Nitrite is also suspected to be carcinogenic.
(iii) Sodium Benzoate – This is used to preserve acidic foods such as fruit juices, carbonated
drinks, pickles, and condiments. In acidic conditions, it forms benzoic acid which inhibits yeast
and bacterial growth. One danger is that in the presence of ascorbic acid, it can form benzene,
which is carcinogenic. It may also increase hyperactivity and asthma in children.
4) Medical uses.
(i) Calcium Sulfate – It is also called gypsum and is used in the manufacture of plaster of Paris
which is used as a building material or for treating bone fractures by forming a cast that holds the
broken bone together until it heals. A paste is formed with the Calcium Sulfate powder and
water, and applied to walls or ceilings and bandages. When the paste dries, it forms a continuous
solid finish.
CSEC Chemistry: Section A – Principles of Chemistry Mr. Khan

(ii) Magnesium Sulfate – This is the major component of Epsom salt. When taken orally, it acts
as a laxative. When added to bath water, it is believed to relieve stress, ease aches and pains,
reduce inflammation, and help cure skin problems.
7.9
A monobasic acid produces one H+ ion per molecule of acid in aqueous solution.
Egs. HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) Hydrochloric Acid
HNO3 (aq) → H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) Nitric Acid

CH3COOH (aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq) Ethanoic Acid

A dibasic acid produces two H+ ions per molecule of acid in aqueous solution.
Egs. H2SO4 (aq) → 2H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) Sulfuric Acid
H2CO3 (aq) 2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) Carbonic Acid
A tribasic acid produces three H+ ions per molecule of acid in aqueous solution.
Eg. H3PO4 (aq) → 3H+ (aq) + PO43- (aq) Phosphoric Acid

A normal salt is formed when all of the H+ ions in an acid are replaced by metal or ammonium
cations.
Eg. H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) → 2H2O (l) + Na2SO4 (aq)
H3PO4 (aq) + 3NaOH (aq) → 3H2O (l) + Na3PO4 (aq)
Sodium Sulfate and Sodium Phosphate are normal salts because all of the H+ ions from the acids
they were formed from were replaced by Na+ cations.

An acid salt is formed when the H+ ions in an acid are partially replaced by metal or ammonium
cations.
Egs. H2SO4 (aq) + NaOH (aq) → H2O (l) + NaHSO4 (aq)
H3PO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) → 2H2O (l) + Na2HPO4 (aq)
H3PO4 (aq) + NaOH (aq) → H2O (l) + NaH2PO4 (aq)
Sodium Hydrogen Sulfate, Sodium Hydrogen Phosphate and Sodium Dihydrogen Phosphate are
acid salts because all of the H+ ions from the acids they were formed from were not replaced by
Na+ cations.
NB: With Sulfuric Acid and Sodium Hydroxide, to form the normal salt, 1 mole of acid reacts
with 2 moles of the base, and to form the acid salt, 1 mole of acid reacts with 1 mole of the base.
CSEC Chemistry: Section A – Principles of Chemistry Mr. Khan

7.10
Neutralization reactions
Determining neutralization point in a neutralization reaction
1) Indicators – Indicators are used to determine whether a solution is an acid or an alkali. They
contain dyes that are one colour in an acidic solution and another colour in an alkaline solution.
Commonly used indicators are given in the table below.
Indicator Colour with acid Colour with alkali
Litmus Red Blue
Methyl Orange Red Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink
Screened Methyl Orange Red Green

The neutralization point or equivalence point is the point in a neutralization reaction when the
number of moles of H+ ions is equal to the number of moles of OH- ions, that is, neutralization
occurs and the pH of the mixture is 7. When a titration is being carried out, the endpoint is
determined when some sort of physical change occurs to indicate neutralization (colour change,
temperature change, electrical conductivity change). The endpoint corresponds to the
neutralization point.
Using a pipette, a fixed volume of the alkali is placed into a conical flask. A few drops of an
indicator are added to the flask. The burette is filled with acid and the initial reading is recorded.
The acid is then released into the flask slowly until the colour of the solution changes when a
single drop of acid is added from the burette. This burette reading is the final reading and is
recorded. When the initial burette reading is subtracted from the final burette reading, the volume
of acid required to completely neutralize the specific volume of alkali in the flask is found, that
is, the neutralization point is found.
2) Temperature changes – Using a pipette, a fixed volume of an alkali is added to an insulated
container. The temperature of this alkali is recorded. The burette is filled with acid. Small
increments of acid of the same volume are added to the alkali and the temperature of the mixture
in the insulated container after each addition is recorded. The experiment is stopped after a few
readings of consecutive temperature drops are recorded. A graph is drawn of temperature vs
volume of acid added. Two straight best fit lines are drawn and where the lines intersect, the
corresponding acid volume is extrapolated. This represents the volume of acid required to
completely neutralize the specific volume of alkali in the insulated container, that is, the
neutralization point is found. This type of titration is called a thermometric titration. In this graph
drawn, there is a line of positive gradient that represents temperature increasing as the reaction is
still going on and heat is being given off when acid is added, there is a line of negative gradient
that represents temperature decreasing as no reaction is occurring so the mixture is cooling when
acid is added, and there is the point of intersection of the lines that represents the neutralization
point where the reaction ended.
CSEC Chemistry: Section A – Principles of Chemistry Mr. Khan

Real life neutralization reactions

1) Action of toothpaste – Tooth enamel contains Calcium Hydroxyapatite which reacts with
acids in the mouth leading to tooth decay. Toothpaste contains monofluorophosphate. When
used, F- ions displace OH- ions in the Calcium Hydroxyapatite forming Calcium Fluoroapatite,
which does not react with acid, protecting the enamel and preventing tooth decay. Some
toothpastes also contain baking soda, Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate. When used, acids in the
mouth are neutralized.
2) Soil – Lime is added to soils to neutralize acids present as plants grow optimally in soils that
are neutral. Lime is added as Calcium Oxide (CaO) or Calcium Hydroxide (CaOH), which are
bases. Lime and an ammonium fertilizer cannot be added to soil at the same time. This is
because the base and ammonium salt will react with each other forming a salt, water and
ammonia gas. Therefore, the benefits to the soil are lost.
CaO (s) + 2NH4+ (aq) → Ca2+ (aq) + H2O (l) + NH3 (g)
7.11
Quantitative Analysis calculations.
Step 1: Fill out titration table (all values to 2 decimal places)
Step 2: Find the average volume of the substance from the burette (use values that are the same
or differ by 0.01 cm3)
Step 3: Find the number of moles of the standard solution used.
Step 4: Write a balanced equation for the reaction occurring.
Step 5: Using the balanced equation, find the number of moles of the substance with the
unknown concentration.
Step 6: From the answer to step 5 - Determine molar concentration
- Determine mass concentration
- Determine mass
- Determine % composition
CSEC Chemistry: Section A – Principles of Chemistry Mr. Khan

Example
CSEC Chemistry: Section A – Principles of Chemistry Mr. Khan
CSEC Chemistry: Section A – Principles of Chemistry Mr. Khan

Quantitative Analysis
Example #1
CSEC Chemistry Paper 2 Jan 2006 Question 1
In titrations, you are using a substance of known concentration (Standard solution/titrant) to find
the concentration of another substance (analyte/titrand).
1. (a) (i)
Titration 1 Titration 2 Titration 3
Final Burette Reading (cm3) 25.50 37.30 40.50
Initial Burette Reading (cm3) 0.50 12.20 15.45
Volume Solution X Used (cm3) 25.00 25.10 25.05

Step 1: Fill out titration table.

Use 2 decimal places for all values. Put a colourless plastic ruler horizontally, touching the base
of the meniscus and the scale to help read off values if unsure.
(ii) Average volume of X = (25 + 25.1 + 25.05) ÷ 3 = 25.05 cm3
Step 2: Find the average value of solution used from the burette.
Use the titration values that are the same or differ by 0.1 cm3 maximum. In this example, all
three values were used because all 3 were within the 0.1 cm3 limit.
(iii) Mass of 1 mol of H2SO4 = (2 x 1) + (1 x 32) + (4 x 16) = 98g
Concentration of H2SO4 = 4.9 gdm-3 ÷ 98g = 0.05 mol dm-3
This question asked to find molar concentration of the solution of known concentration from its
mass concentration.
Use the equation:
Concentration in mol dm-3 = Concentration in g dm-3 ÷ Mass of 1 mol
In some questions, this step may be left out and the question would have already told you the
molar concentration.
(iv) 1000 cm3 H2SO4 contain 0.05 mol
⸫ 25.05 cm3 will contain (0.05 ÷ 1000) x 25.05 = 1.253 x 10-3 mol
Step 3: Find the number of moles of the substance of known concentration used in the titration.
Remember that 0.05 mol dm-3 means that 1000 cm3 of the substance contains 0.05 mol. The
25.05 cm3 was gotten from part (ii) which was calculated from the titrations carried out.
CSEC Chemistry: Section A – Principles of Chemistry Mr. Khan

(v) H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq)  Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

Step 4: Write a balanced equation for the reaction occurring.
Remember to put in state symbols. For this question, an acid reacted with a base to form a salt
and water. This is a neutralization reaction. This type of titration is called an acid-base titration.
(vi) From the equation: 1 mol of H2SO4 reacted with 2 mol of NaOH
⸫ 1.253 x 10-3 mol of H2SO4 will react with 2 x 1.253 x 10-3 = 2.505 x 10-3 mol NaOH
Step 5: Use mole ratios from the balanced equation to determine the number of moles of the
substance of unknown concentration that reacted with the substance of known concentration.
(vii) 25 cm3 of NaOH contain 2.505 x 10-3 mol
⸫ 1000 cm3 of NaOH will contain (2.505 x 10-3 ÷ 25) x 1000 = 0.1002 mol dm-3

Mass of 1 mol NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40g

Concentration of NaOH in g dm-3 = 0.1002 mol dm-3 x 40 = 4.008 g dm-3

Step 6: Calculate the concentration of the unknown substance.
Some questions may just ask for the molar concentration alone, so stop at the first part in part
(vii). In this question, the mass concentration was asked for. Therefore, the additional part of part
(vii) was used. This mass concentration was found be re-arranging the formula given in step 3
above.
(viii) % purity of NaOH = (4.008 ÷ 5.0) x 100 = 80.16%
This question also asked to find the % purity.
At the beginning of this question, it was stated in paragraph 2 that 1 dm3 of impure Y was used.
Therefore, we can use the mass concentration calculated in part (vii) above to find our % purity.
We see that 4.008g of NaOH was present in the 5.0g of impure NaOH used.
Some questions may not ask for this part to be done.