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    Science Kerlinger

    Uploaded by

    Shristi Dey

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    i j } i i Chapter 1 Science and the Scientific Approach ‘To unoeasrano any comple human activity we mast gap the lngvage and spprosch ‘ofthe individuals who pursue iS iti with understanding sien td selec search, One mist know and understand, t leat in pat senifc language aa te ‘cintie approach te problem-solving. ‘One ofthe most config ting 1 the toda of sine isthe pela way sieatins te ordinary words, To make males Worse, they invent new words, Tete ee good ‘sons fortis spectized we ot Ingbage; they wil become event Inter. For how: ‘sfc io sy tht we mus understand an earn te language of oval sles, Wie investgnos us about their independent and dependent verse, we mst Know What ‘they mesa, When thy tel us that dey ave madomized ther expetimental procedures, ‘we must not ony kncw wha they mean—we must tnersand why they dos cy ‘Sinilal, the seis approach o probleme mut be clear understood. it ots ‘much tha his approat i different from We layman's Is diferent of cous, but ot range and eter. Qui the conrary. When understood, wil seem saul sed most inevitable that he scientist does what be does ldeed, we wil probaly wonder ‘why much more man thinking and problem-solving ae no consciously sete long ch Ties, ‘The purpose of Pat One ofthis ook i 0 hep the student lean snd understand the language and pproas of science and research In the chapters of his pert many of Be basic construct ofthe social and educational sls wil be staie. fo some aes wil ot be posible give complete and stsfactoy definitions because of ak of Background Mths emty pin in our development In such cases we sl ate Formulate and we recsnsbly accurate fst apposimations 10 Tae, more salisfacory 44-The Language and Approach of Science Aefinons. Let us begin our sty by considering how the seieais proaches problems hd how tl approgch differs from what might be called a commonsease approach, SCIENCE AND COMMON SENSE ‘Whitedead has pind out that in cetve thought common sens sa bad master, “ks ‘Sle erteron for odent is that the ew essa ook Uke theo bes." Tiss well 844 Common scat may often es bad mst for th evaluation of knowledge BuLROW tue scieace and comman sene alike a2 bow a they ferent From ove viewpoint, fciene and common gene ae lke. Tis view woul ay that scence ia systemaic and eaoled extension of common sense, since common sete, as Cond pons ou, i 8 Snes of eoncpt and concepevl seme stifartory Tor the praca ses of mand [Bu these concepts and coneeptal schemes ay be seriously misleading in moder sci- fence-vand prelim pyehology and educa, It was elFevident to many ede {or ofthe last centr. was oly cheaman sense—r0 use punishment aa tsi ol of ‘pedagogy. Now we hve evidence thats olfer commonsense view of motivation may eiquiectoncous, Reward seme more effective than punsoment in alding learning. ‘clence and common sexe fer sharply n five ways. These disagreements revive sound te words "systema and "eonulld.” Fst, he ues of conceptual schemes {od thoretal structures ze kiagly erent. While te man in the set wes “theo ‘es and concepts, be ordinay does so in «fos fashion. He often Badly acces Fancifl explanations of ara! rnéheranphenomena. Aa lies, fr insane, maybe thovght o bea punishment for sinflness. An economic depression may be atribated Jews: Scie, onthe eter hand, syseatcaly bud teoreial ctr, test them for intemal consistency, and sabe aspects of her to empire est. urea, they realize ta the concepts hy eae man-made terms that may O ayo exh a lose ‘elton to rely ‘Second, scien systematically and enpircaly west their theoces and hypoteses. [Noose test "hypotheses," Yoo, bu ey test tem in what ay be called & elective fashion, They often selec” evidence simply Beco its conseat withthe hypobe {es Take the seeotype Blacks ae mused. f people believe tis, they can easly *"erfy the bel by noting that many bck are musicians. Exception othe sero ‘ype, the unmancal or losedat blk, for example, a not perceived, Sophisticated ‘Soll slentis, Knowing the selection tndeney” to be a common paycholoical pe- emenon,crefilly guard thir french agaist thet own peconcepons and prec tone and agin selective suport of ypodeses. For ane ng, they are not content wih ‘mcr exploration of relator; they must est the relations inthe Inboratoy ori the ‘exon aenpe tn thas fom i Aetna ct epi pans hn ny enn ane an ‘SheealThey Soh nde rec Saed “cel ps orc csr" Snes ‘bj a ets mand per yn pomnnien of onan arcs eet yee Te SeaTac slr pr rus man seot ome tm ‘Science and the Scientific Approsch -$ {They ae not conten, for example, with he presumed relations between methods of ‘ching and schieveren, between inligence and ceatviy, between vales and a minisiative decisions. They iss pon sematc,contlled, and emprcl testing Of ‘ase relations. ‘A tid diferece lies inte notion of cot. In scientific reserch, contol means several things, For the presale i mean ta the Siete systray to aout ‘orale that are possible “cases ofthe effects under stay other than the varies ‘npohesized obs the "cuss." Layne seldom bother fo cota systematically Beit ‘eplantion of observed phenomena. Tey ortnaly make ite effort to consol ext ‘ous sources finfuence. They tnd accept those explanations ta arin evord wih tir preconceptions and biases. I hey bbeve that sham condition produce élinguency, thy tendo divegard delingueney in nonlum neighborhood. The Eieatst on the other hin, seeks out and “contols” delinquency incidence Indifferent kids of teighbor. nods. The difference, of course, x profound, ‘Anobe ference between cence and common snes perhaps no 0 sharp. Iwas ssi erie tht the sient s constamlypreocupid with rations among phenomene, ‘Soisthe layman who invokes common sense for explanations ef phenorea, But th ‘cenit consciously and systemataly pursues elton. The lajan’s preoccupation ith relations i ose, unsystematic, uncontrolled. He often seizes, for exemple, on the fowitous oecurene of wo phenomena and immediately links them indisalubly as cate and effet. Take the relation teste in sty done many years ago by Hulk, In more recent ‘eminology, this relation may be expressed: Postive reinforcement (reward) produces ‘eter intements of aming than dos punishment The elation is between ‘enforce. ‘met (or evard and punishment) and learn. Educators and patent ofthe naccenh zur olen asume that pnishrent was the more effective agent inleaming,Eaucs: tos and parents ofthe present often assure that positive reinforcement (reward) is mone ‘fhtive. Both may say that heir viewpoint are nly common seme" Ii obvious, "hey may say, that if you reward (or push ash be ors wil lar beter THe ‘sks on the oter and, while personally espousing one rte che of neler a hese ‘iwpoins, would probably insist on systematic ad contol testing ofboth (nd then ‘eons, as Hele di ’A final diference betwen common sense and science esi ferent explanation of observed phenomena, The scientist, when atempting to expan the relations avong ob Served phenomens, carefully rls cat what have Ben clled "nets explana ‘ion. metaphysial explanation is imply a propoition th ano be tesied, To sy, forename, that people ae poor and stving becuse God wil t,o that ts wrong 10 teauhoriavan, 19 talk metaphysical None ofthese propositions cin be tested: thas thy are metaphysical. As such, siene ‘soot concerned with them. Tis doesnot mean tht eit Would) necessary spre such statements, sy they ae not t,o a thy are meanings I smply meses far cients hey arent concerned with them. In shot, scence Concered wih ings that can be publicly observed and tested. If propositions or questions do not conta implications for such publi observation ad testing, they ae no sient proposions or questions 7E Maa, A lil enn Udi She." Ei Poh (6 The Language and Approach of Science FOUR METHODS OF KNOWING hates Pie si that thee ae four gene way of kaowing ot w te pa Ong Bele The fiat she methad of enact. Here men ball ily fo eth, he Wal st they know to be tae beaase thy bold fly, ease they have ava known tw be te. Frequent repetition af such “tthe” senso enhance ther vlldiy, People fen ling to their belies in the face of clearly confit fats And they wilt fer “now knowlege from proporions that maybe false ‘A second method of Knowing or Ting belie the method of authority. This isthe athe of esbled bel. Ihe Bible says its 0 I noted pyc aye here a God, iss. If an dea has the weight of triton sed publi snclon chia it 50. As Pie pot ot his method is soperor othe metodo nue. bremn mas _rores although slow, can be achieved using the meth. Acualy IN cold. at boom ‘ita the method of wath We mos tke sarge Yd of fac an inforatgn on the bass of eathory. Thus, i shoud not be coclet that the method of subay ‘uiund ts uaound oly under cern ckeumsants, ‘Thea prin method isthe thd way of owing or fxing ble. (Coben and Nagel

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