Using the Dynamic Model of Educational Effectiveness to Identify Stages of Effective

Teaching: An Introduction to the Special Issue

Author(s): Bert P. M. Creemers and Leonidas Kyriakides
Source: The Journal of Classroom Interaction , 2013, Vol. 48, No. 2 (2013), pp. 4-10
Published by: Journal of Classroom Interaction

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43858890

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Journal of
Classroom Interaction

This content downloaded from

81.154.58.114 on Mon, 27 Sep 2021 22:51:29 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Using the Dynamic Model of Educational Effectiveness to Identify
Stages of Effective Teaching: An Introduction to the Special Issue

Bert P. M. Creemers
University of Groningen , The Netherlands
Leonidas Kyriakides
University of Cyprus, Cyprus

ABSTRACT studies also reveal that quality of teaching is the most

important factor at the classroom level (Brophy & Good,
1986; Fraser,
This paper is concerned with the teacher factors of Walberg, Welch, & Hattie, 1987). For this
reason, theoretical
the dynamic model of educational effectiveness, which give models that attempt to explain why
emphasis to teacher behavior in the classroomthese
and teaching
focus factors are important for learning and
on generic teaching skills. Teacher factors learning outcomes have been developed (Creemers,
associated
1994). However, an important constraint of the existing
with both the direct and active teaching approach (e.g.,
approaches of modelling educational effectiveness is the
structuring, questioning, application) and the construc-
fact that the whole process does not contribute signifi-
tivist approach (e.g., orientation, modeling-scaffolding)
cantly to the improvement of teaching practice (Scheerens,
are included in the model. The paper also refers to the five
2013). In this context, a dynamic model of educational
dimensions that are used to measure the functioning of
effectiveness, which attempts to establish stronger links
these factors: frequency, focus, stage, quality, and differ-
between effectiveness research and improvement of
entiation. It is also claimed that teaching skills included
policy and practice, has been developed (Creemers &
in the dynamic model can help us define stages of effective
Kyriakides, 2008).
teaching. Results of studies searching for stages of effec-
The dynamic model of educational effectiveness
tive teaching are presented in this special issue. Finally,
takes into account the fact that most of the effectiveness
implications for research on improving effective teaching
studies exclusively focus on language or mathematics
and promoting student learning outcomes are drawn.
rather than on the school-wide curriculum aims (e.g.,
cognitive, metacognitive, and affective). This narrow
INTRODUCTION
focus found in previous research reveals that the models
of educational effectiveness should take into account the
Over the last three decades, studies conducted
new goals in
of education and related to this their implica-
different countries revealed that the classroom effect istions for teaching and learning. Subsequently, the outcome
more important than the school effect in explaining varia-
measures should be defined in a broader way rather than
tion in student achievement on both cognitive and affec- restricting outcomes to assess the achievement of basic
tive outcomes (Teddlie & Reynolds, 2000). Effectivenessskills. It also implies that new theories of teaching and

4 Journal of Classroom Interaction Vol. 48.2 2013

This content downloaded from

81.154.58.114 on Mon, 27 Sep 2021 22:51:29 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
learning are used in order to specify variables associated help us identify stages of effective teaching that can be
with the quality of teaching. Specifically, the dynamic used for teacher improvement purposes.
model is based on traditional views on learning and
instruction, such as direct learning and teaching (e.g., FACTORS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING IN THE
Brophy & Good, 1986; Rosenshine, 1983), but also takes DYNAMIC MODEL: AN OVERVIEW
into account new ideas on learning and instruction associ-
ated with constructivism, which give emphasis to inde- Based on the main findings of teacher effectiveness
pendent learning and the construction of knowledge by research (e.g., Brophy & Good, 1986; Fraser et al., 198
the learner (Simons, van der Linden, & Duffy, 2000). This Muijs & Reynolds, 2001; Opdenakker, & Van Damm
implies that in the later case, the role of the teacher gradu- 2000; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986), the dynamic mod
ally moves from instructing to coaching and modeling refers to factors which describe teachers' instructional rol
learning. and are associated with student outcomes. These factors
In regard to the use of the model for improvement refer to observable instructional behavior of teachers in
purposes at teacher level (e.g., initial training and profes- the classroom rather than on factors that may explain
sional development), it is assumed that teaching factors such behavior (e.g., teacher beliefs and knowledge and
refer to knowledge and skills associated with different interpersonal competences). The eight factors included in
types of teacher behavior in the classroom. These types the model are as follows: orientation, structuring, ques-
of behavior may not necessarily stem from a specific tioning, teaching-modelling, application, management of
approach to teaching, such as direct instruction, active time, teacher role in making classroom a learning envi-
teaching, differentiated teaching or more constructivist ronment, and classroom assessment. Table 1 provides
approaches to teaching (Freiberg & Driscoll, 2005). The an overview of the aspects covered by each factor. The
dynamic model is not promoting specific approaches, following observations arise from this table. First, the
but concentrating on instructional behavior of teachers dynamic model refers to skills associated with direct
by describing them through the use of specific teaching teaching and mastery learning such as structuring and
factors. Moreover, the model is based on the assumption questioning, which are in line with the main findings of
that teaching factors are not separate entities but some of process-product studies. Second, factors included in the
them are interrelated (Campbell, Kyriakides, Muijs, & dynamic model such as orientation and teaching model-
Robinson, 2003; Creemers, 2007; Freiberg & Driscoll, ling are in line with theories of teaching associated with
2005; Johnson, 1997). This implies that teachers may constructivism. Moreover, the collaboration technique
demonstrate types of behavior that are based on different is included under the overarching factor contribution of
combinations of the various teaching approaches that can teacher to the establishment of classroom learning envi-
be related to student outcome measures. ronment. Therefore, an integrated approach to quality of
The model also attempts to describe the complex teaching is adopted.
nature of effectiveness by pointing out not only the impor- The dynamic model is also based on the assumption
tance of specific factors, but also by searching for rela-
that although there are different effectiveness factors, each
tions among factors which operate at the same level. As factor
a can be defined and measured using the following five
dimensions: frequency, focus, stage, quality, and differ-
consequence, the concept of grouping of factors is intro-
duced. Therefore, by identifying relations among teacherentiation. These dimensions are supposed to contribute
to the effects that a factor is expected to have on student
factors (i.e., types of teacher behavior), more comprehen-
sive strategies for teacher improvement may emerge. Thisoutcome measures. Moreover, they help us better describe
the functioning of a factor. Specifically, frequency is
implies that the model is based on the assumption that
improvement of teacher effectiveness can be focused notaon
quantitative way to measure the functioning of each
effectiveness factor whereas the other four dimensions
the acquisition of isolated skills/competencies (Gilberts &
Lignugaris-Kraft, 1997), but on helping teachers exercise examine qualitative characteristics of the functioning of
and/or develop types of teacher behavior that are more the factor operating at the system/school/classroom level
effective than others (Creemers, Kyriakides, & Antoniou, (see Table 2). The dimensions are not only important for
2013). In the next section of this paper, we present the a measurement perspective, but also and even more for
teacher factors and the framework that is used to measure a theoretical point of view. Actions of teachers associ-
these factors. Some evidence supporting the impact of ated with each factor can be understood from different
teacher factors and their dimensions to student learning perspectives, giving emphasis to the number of cases in
is also provided. It is, finally, pointed out the importancewhich the actions occur in teaching. In addition, the use
of searching for relations among teacher factors that canof these dimensions may help us develop strategies for

Journal of Classroom Interaction Vol. 48.2 2013 5

This content downloaded from

81.154.58.114 on Mon, 27 Sep 2021 22:51:29 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 The M

1) Or
chall

2) Str
be co
to, a

3) Qu
diffi
responses.

4) Teaching modeling a) Encouraging students to use problem-solving strategies presented by the teacher
or other classmates; b) inviting students to develop strategies; and c) promoting the
idea of modeling.
5) Application a) Using seatwork or small-group tasks in order to provide necessary practice and
application opportunities; and b) using application tasks as starting points for the next
step in teaching and learning.

6) The classroom as a a) Establishing on-task behavior through the interactions it promotes (i.e., teacher-
learning environment student and student-student interactions); and b) dealing with classroom disorder and
student competition by establishing rules, persuading students to respect them and
using the rules.

7) Management of a) Organizing the classroom environment; and b) Maximizing engagement rates,

time

8) Assessment a) Using appropriate techniques to collect data on student knowledge and skills; b)
analyzing data in order to identify student needs; c) reporting assessment results to
students and parents; and d) evaluating their own practices.

improving teaching, since the feedback given to teachers
could refer not only to quantitative, but also to qualitative
characteristics of their teaching practice.
The dynamic model attempts to describe the complex
nature of effective teaching by pointing out not only the
importance of specific factors and dimensions but also
explaining how the functioning of each factor can be
defined. The model is based on the assumption that these
factors and their dimensions may be inter-related, and the
importance of grouping of specific factors for explaining
achievement gains is stressed. In this way not only the
complex nature of effective teaching is illustrated, but also
specific strategies for teacher improvement may emerge.
It should be acknowledged that although the effect of
these factors upon achievement in different outcomes
has been demonstrated through longitudinal studies (see
Creemers & Kyriakides, 2012) and meta-analyses (e.g.,
Kyriakides, Creemers, Antoniou, & Demetriou, 2010;
Seidel & Shavelson, 2007), the assumption concerned
with the grouping of factors is tested and reported in this
special issue. These studies are introduced below and
implications for teacher professional development are
drawn.
STUDIES SEARCHING FOR STAGES OF
EFFECTIVE TEACHING: IMPLICATIONS FOR
TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The first study in this JCI special issue was conducte
in Canada and made use of student ratings to measure th
skills of teachers in regard to each teacher factor and it
dimensions (Kyriakides, Archambault, & Janosz, 201
Analysis of data revealed that teaching skills included
the dynamic model can be grouped into specific types
teacher behavior which are discerned in a distinctive wa
and move gradually from skills associated with dire
teaching to more advanced skills concerned with ne

^ Journal of Classroom Interaction Vol. 48.2 2013

This content downloaded from

81.154.58.114 on Mon, 27 Sep 2021 22:51:29 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Opera

Freq
assoc
is pr

Focu
class
follo
are measured: b) How many purposes are expected to be
a) Specificity achieved?
b) The number of purposes of an activity

Stage This refers to the period over which

take place. It is assumed that the factors ne
to take place over a long period of time to
ensure that they have a continuous direct or
indirect effect on student learning.

Quality This refers to the properties of th

factor itself, as are discussed in the literat
the functioning of each
b) To what extent is th
task in line with the literature?

Differentiation This refers to the extent to which activities To what extent are different tasks
associated with a factor are implemented in associated with each factor provided to
the same way for all the subjects involved different groups of subjects involved with
with it. this factor?

teaching approaches and was not investigated

differentiation over
of teaching
study does not only provide support
that arises to the assu
is whether ste
of the dynamic model teacher
that factors operating
behavior can beata
level are interrelated, but has also
teacher some implicat
development.
establishing a stage model In
for teacher
this professional
respect, the second
opment. The types of is
teacher behavior
longitudinal which e
in character
from the dynamic model
themove gradually from
identification rela
of stages
simple types of behavior
withtoprogression
more advanced,
fromindon
that teachers may also 2013).
move gradually from one
In this study, Cy
teacher behavior to a more advanced
followed type
over two of be
consec
It should, however, bemeasures
acknowledged that
of their cond
teaching
cross-sectional studies isof
likely to identify
the first differen
year, end of th
performance teachers of
and During
year). that these
the finding
first sc
necessarily imply that transitioning from
tion study was one leve
conducted
other occurs in a to manner.
stepwise teacherGiven
professional
that the d
this study was to test the validity
During theof the dynamic
second year, n
and illustrate the any professional
importance develop
of grouping teaching
into types of teacher emerged teaching
behavior, from each meas
skill acq

Journal of Classroom Interaction Vol. 48.2 2013 7

This content downloaded from

81.154.58.114 on Mon, 27 Sep 2021 22:51:29 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
separately and five stages of effective teaching emerged study reported that improvement in teacher effectiveness
from each assessment period. Most teachers were found only can be achieved through focused professional devel-
to be situated at the same stage during this period, but opment programs, which take into account the findings of
some teachers of the second experimental group were teacher effectiveness research.
found to move from one stage to the next most demanding The final paper moves a step forward and investi-
during the first year. The paper refers to the advantages of gates the extent to which the dynamic model can help us
using longitudinal studies to identify teacher professional generate developmental stages of teacher skills in assess-
developmental stages and provides some explanations ment. Specifically, the paper compares the results of two
about the fact that years of teaching experience are not cross-sectional studies which were conducted in two coun-
tries (Greece and Cyprus) and investigates teachers' skills
related in a linear way with the developmental stage that
teachers were found to be situated. in using various techniques of assessment in mathematics
The third paper is an experimental study comparingby taking into account the four phases of assessment
the standard based approach with a teacher professional(Christoforidou & Xirafidou, in press). The five dimen-
development concerned with the teacher factors includedsions of the dynamic model were also taken into account
in the dynamic model (Azkiyah, Doolaard, Creemers,in proposing a framework for measuring teacher skills in
& Van Der Werf, in press). This study demonstrates the assessment. Using the Rasch and the Saltus model, it was
added value of providing teacher professional programs found that assessment skills can be grouped into four types
of assessment behavior which are discerned in a distinc-
that are focused on quality of teaching. In the third paper,
both this experimental and the intervention phase of thetive way and move gradually from skills associated with

TABLE 3

Overview of Assumptions of the Dynamic Model Empirically Supported by Studies Reviewed in the Special Issue

Five dimensions can be used to measure the Paper 1 : Cross-sectional study conducted in Canada
functioning of teacher factors Paper 2: Longitudinal study conducted in Cyprus
Paper 3: Experimental study conducted in Indonesia
Paper 4: Two cross-sectional studies conducted in Cyprus and
Greece (focused on the assessment factor)

Teacher factors are associated with student Paper 2: Longitudinal study conducted in Cyprus
achievement Paper 3 : Experimental study conducted in Indonesia

Teacher factors are interrelated Paper 1 : Cross-sectional study condicted in Canada

Paper 2: Longitudinal study conducted in Cyprus

Teaching skills can be grouped into stages of Paper 1 : Cross-sectional study conducted in Canada
effective teaching Paper 2: Longitudinal study conducted in Cyprus

Similar stages of effective teaching identified Paper 1 : Cross-sectional study conducted in Can
through different measures of teachers skills in Paper 2: Longitudinal study conducted in Cyp
relation to the factors of the model

Similar stages of assessment skills emerged from Paper 4: Two cross-sectional studies conducted in Cyprus
studies condcuted in different countries and Greece

The model can be used to design effective teacher Paper 2: Longitudinal study co
professional dvelopment courses Paper 3: Experimental study conducted in Indonesia

g Journal of Classroom Interaction Vol. 48.2 2013

This content downloaded from

81.154.58.114 on Mon, 27 Sep 2021 22:51:29 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
everyday assessment routines to more advanced skills of effective teaching were also found to be very similar
concerned with differentiation in assessment. Comparing to those identified through the cross sectional study
the findings of the two studies, it is shown that the stages conducted in Canada.
that were identified in the two countries are very similar. Finally, two experimental studies conducted in
Table 3 provides an overview of the assumptions of different countries revealed that the dynamic model can
the dynamic model that received empirical support from be used to design effective teacher professional develop-
the studies reported in this special issue. One can see that ment courses. One could argue that the studies reported
each assumption received support by studies conducted in in this special issue do not only provide support to the
different countries which made use of different research assumptions of the dynamic model but also reveal that the
strategies (i.e., cross-sectional, longitudinal, experi- model may help us develop more focused interventions
mental). Moreover, empirical support to the importance addressing the needs of teachers in teaching and assessing
of teacher factors and their dimensions is provided.students. In These interventions seem to have an impact
addition, teaching skills included in the dynamic model
on improving not only the skills of teachers but also the
student learning outcomes. Further research to test the
were found to be situated into stages of effective teaching
and assessment. generalizability of the findings of these studies is needed.
Furthermore, similar stages of effective teaching
One could, however, claim that the studies reported here
provide a starting point for establishing stages of effective
and assessment were identified through various measures
of teachers' skills conducted in different countries. For
teaching by addressing generic factors, especially since
example, the longitudinal study conducted in Cyprus similar results emerged from studies using different meth-
odological approaches and were conducted in different
revealed that the same stages of teaching skills were iden-
countries. These studies may also provide further support
tified by collecting data at three different measurement
periods. Most teachers were also found to be situated to our
at attempt to develop a dynamic approach to teacher
the same stage in all three measurements. These stages professional development (Creemers et al., 2013).

Journal of Classroom Interaction Vol. 48.2 2013 9

This content downloaded from

81.154.58.114 on Mon, 27 Sep 2021 22:51:29 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 REFERENCES

Johnson, B. (1997). An organizational analysis of multiple

Antoniou, P. (2013). A longitudinal study investigating relations
between stages of effective teaching, teaching experienceperspectives of effective teaching: Implications of teacher
and teacher professional development approaches. Journalevaluation. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education,
of Classroom Interaction, 48(2), 25-40. 11,69-87.
Azkiyah, S.N., Doolaard, S., Creemers, & Van Der Werf, Kyriakides, L., Archambault, I., & Janosz, M. (2013). Searching
M.P.C, (in press). The effects of two intervention programs for stages of effective teaching: a study testing the validity
on teaching quality and student achievement. Journal of of the dynamic model in Canada. Journal of Classroom
Classroom Interaction, 49(1). Interaction, 48(2), 11-24.
Brophy, J., & Good, T.L. (1986). Teacher behavior and studentKyriakides, L., Creemers, B., Antoniou, P., & Demetriou, D.
achievement. In M.C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research (2010). A synthesis of studies searching for school factors:
on teaching (3rd ed, pp. 328-375). New York: MacMillan. Implications for theory and research. British Educational
Campbell, R.J., Kyriakides, L., Muijs, R.D., & Robinson, W. Research Journal, 36(5), 807-830.
(2003). Differential teacher effectiveness: towards a model Muijs, D., & Reynolds, D. (2001). Effective teaching : evidence
for research and teacher appraisal. Oxford Review of and practice. London: Sage.
Education, 29(3), 347-362. Opdenakker, M.C., & Van Damme, J. (2000). Effects of schools,
Creemers, B.P.M. (1994). The effective classroom. London: teaching staff and classes on achievement and well-being
Cassell. in secondary education: Similarities and differences
Creemers, B.P.M. (2007) Educational effectiveness and between school outcomes. School Effectiveness and School
improvement: the development of the field in mainland Improvement, 11(2), 65-196.
Europe. In Townsend, T. (ed.), International handbook Rosenshine,
of B. (1983). Teaching functions in instructional
school effectiveness and improvement (pp. 223-242). New programs. Elementary School Journal, 83(4), 335-350.
York: Springer. Rosenshine, B., & Stevens, R. (1986). Teaching functions. In M.C.
Creemers, B.P.M., & Kyriakides, L. (2008). The dynamics of Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.,
educational effectiveness: A contribution to policy, practice pp. 376-391). New York: Macmillan.
Scheerens, J. (2013). The use of theory in school effectiveness
and theory in contemporary schools. London and New York:
Routledge. research revisited. School Effectiveness and School
Creemers, B.P.M., & Kyriakides, L. (2012). Improving quality Improvement, 24(1), 1-38.
Seidel, T., & Shavelson, R. J. (2007). Teaching effectiveness
in education : Dynamic approaches to school improvement.
London: Routledge. research in the past decade: The role of theory and research
Creemers, B.P.M., Kyriakides, L., & Antoniou, P. (2013). Teacher design in disentangling meta-analysis research. Review of
professional development for improving quality in teaching. Educational Research, 77, 454-499.
Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. Simons, R.J., van der Linden, J., & Duffy, T. (2000). New learning:
Christoforidou, M., & Xirafidou, E. (in press). Using the dynamic Three ways to learn in a new balance. In R.J. Simons, J.
model to identify stages of ateacher skills in assessment. van der Linden, & T. Duffy (Eds), New learning (pp. 1-20).
Journal of Classroom Interaction , 49(1). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.
Fraser, B.J., Walberg, H.J., Welch, W.W., & Hattie, J.A. (1987).Teddlie, C ., & Reynolds, D. (2000). The International handbook
Syntheses of educational productivity research. International of school effectiveness research. London: Falmer Press.
Journal of Educational Research, 11(2), 145-252.
Freiberg, H.J., & Driscoll, A. (2005). Universal teaching strategies
(4th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education Inc. Correspondence regarding this article should be
Gilberts, G.H., & Lignugaris-Kraft, B. (1997). Classroom addressed to Bert P. M. Creemers from University of
management and instruction competencies for preparing
Groningen, The Netherlands. Email may be sent to
elementary and special education teachers. Teaching and
b.p.m.creemers@rug.nl
Teacher Education, 13(6), 597-610.

10 Journal of Classroom Interaction Vol. 48.2 2013

This content downloaded from

81.154.58.114 on Mon, 27 Sep 2021 22:51:29 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms