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Color Constancy

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DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-27851-8_266-1

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Metadata of the chapter that will be visualized online
Chapter Title Color Constancy
Copyright Year 2015
Copyright Holder Springer Science+Business Media New York
Corresponding Author Family Name Xiao
Particle
Given Name Bei
Suffix
Division/Department Department of Computer Science
Organization/University American University
Street 4400 Massachusetts Avenue NW
City Washington
State DC
Postcode 20016-8058
Country USA
Email bei.xiao@gmail.com
Au1
1
C

2 Color Constancy source is tungsten light. If one were in the 25

scene, one would perceive the mug under both 26

3 Bei Xiao illumination conditions to have the same orange 27

4 Department of Computer Science, American color, though individual pixels from the same 28

5 University, Washington, DC, USA location from the mug in two photos appear dif- 29

ferent (see the patches above the photos). 30

Humans exhibit very good color constancy 31

Au2 6 Synonyms under natural viewing conditions (see a recent 32

review [16]). However, constancy can also be 33

7 Chromatic adaptation; White balancing poor under certain conditions. Figure 2 illustrated 34

a scenario when color constancy fails for most 35

observers. Color constancy is important in real- 36

8 Definition world tasks such as object and scene recognition 37

and visual search [65, 79]. 38

9 Color constancy refers to the ability of the human Unlike the human visual system, the image 39

10 visual system to perceive stable object color, captured by a digital camera has the issue that 40

11 despite significant variation of illumination. the color of the scene may be shifted by the 41

12 Color constancy is also a desired algorithm in change in the external illumination, even though 42

13 machine vision. In image processing, it is widely the intrinsic spectral property object in the scene 43

14 used in white balancing algorithms. Color con- (e.g., the mug) stays the same. The goal of a color 44

15 stancy has been an active research topic in the constancy algorithm is to correct the color shift 45

16 past 100 years. For a thorough understanding of caused by the illumination change and to extract 46

17 this subject, please see the following recent reliable color features that are invariant to the 47

18 reviews [4, 13, 16, 20, 34, 35, 56, 70]. change in illumination [23, 40]. The method of 48

correcting image color shift caused by changes in 49

the scene illumination in a camera is called white 50

19 Overview balance. 51

20 Figure 1 shows photos of the same scene under

21 two illumination conditions. The right photo was The Problem of Color Constancy 52

22 taken in the morning when the dominant light

23 source is the daylight, while the left photo was Figure 3 illustrates the problem of color con- 53

24 taken in the evening when the dominant light stancy. The color signal reaching the eye, C(l), 54

# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015

R. Luo (ed.), Encyclopedia of Color Science and Technology,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-27851-8_266-1
 2 Color Constancy
Color Constancy, Fig. 1 Images of the samae thermal
mug lighted under two illuminants (tungsten illumination
and window daylight). Top: the patches show rectangular
regions filled with the color from roughly the same loca-
tions of the mug in the two images. Bottom: the images
from which the patches were extracted. The image on the
55 is a wavelength-by-wavelength product of the
56 spectral power distribution of the illumination I
57 (l) and the surface reflectance function S(l).
58 Different light sources have different spectral
Color Constancy, Fig. 2 Failures of color constancy.
Left: a photograph of fruits taken under a monochromatic
low-pressure sodium light. Right: the same scene was illu-
minated by normal broadband light sources. Most
left was taken under two tungsten lamps. The image on the
right was taken under the daylight from the windows. The
photographs were taken by the author using a Canon EOS
Rebel T2 digital SLR camera with a 50 mm fixed lens and
the automatic white balance function of the camera
disabled
power distributions; for example, daylight has 59
different spectral power distribution from that of 60
a tungsten light source. Surface reflectance func- 61
tion S(l) is an intrinsic property of a surface, and 62
observers won’t be able to tell the color of the bell pepper
from the left image (the images were downloaded from
http://www.soxlamps.com/advantages_sub.htm). But such
monochromatic light source is rare in the real world
 Color Constancy 3

constancy. To answer this, we need to measure 81

E1 (λ) color constancy in a controlled way. Three com- 82

mon methods have been used in the past to mea- 83

sure color constancy in a laboratory setting: color 84

naming where observers name colors of surfaces 85

S1(λ)
under different illuminations [44, 45], asymmet- 86

ric matching where observers adjust a match sur- 87

face under one illuminant to match the color 88

C(λ) = E1(λ) S1(λ)

appearance of a reference surface under another 89

illuminant [2, 19, 78], and achromatic adjustment 90

E2(λ) where observers adjust the chromaticity of a test 91

surface so that it appears achromatic and then 92

repeat the task when the test is embedded in 93

S2(λ) scenes with different illuminants [12]. It was 94

found that asymmetric matching and achromatic 95

adjustment reach similar conclusions of con- 96

stancy when the two tasks were compared using 97

C(λ) = E2(λ) S2(λ) the same scenes [19]. 98

Color Constancy, Fig. 3 Illustration of color constancy. How Good Is Human Color Constancy? 99 Au3
The spectrum of reflected light reaching the eye, C(l), is Overall, these methods show that human con- 100
wavelength-by-wavelength product of surface reflectance stancy is not perfect but generally very good. We 101
S and the illumination E. The problem of color constancy
is challenging because different combination of illumina- can compute a color constancy index from either 102

tion and surface reflectance can result in the same color asymmetric matching or achromatic adjustment 103
signal (This illustration is adapted from David Brainard experiments, where 0 % means no constancy and 104
[16]) 100 % means perfect constancy [2, 19, 21, 105

71]. Most studies in color constancy use simplified 106

63 it is determined by how the surface absorbs and laboratory stimuli that consist of flat and matte 107
64 reflects light. Under a neutral light source, objects surfaces under diffuse lighting conditions (for 108
65 with different surface reflectance functions reviews, see [2, 12, 13, 16, 54]). 109
66 appear to have different colors. The goal of For such flat-matte-diffuse surfaces in simple 110
67 color constancy is to extract the intrinsic surface scenes, especially when only the illuminant is 111
68 reflectance function from the color signal. Color varied in the scene, color constancy can be very 112
69 constancy is an ambiguous problem because dif- good with an average constancy index around 0.85 113
70 ferent combinations of illuminant and surface can for real scenes [12] and around 0.75 for graphical 114
71 give rise to the same color signal (see Fig. 3). simulated scenes [27]. However, constancy can be 115
72 Many computational models in the past suggest decreased significantly when both the illuminants 116
73 that the visual system first makes an estimate of and the surfaces are varied in a scene. Figure 4b 117
74 the illuminant and uses it to recover the surface shows an example of such manipulations. The 118
75 reflectance function {Brainard [14, 39, 40, 66]}. surface in the scene was manipulated so that the 119

color of the background wall reaching the eye 120

under illuminant A is the same as when a neutral 121

76 What Do We Know About Human Color colored wall is illuminated under illuminant B (the 122

77 Constancy? middle and the leftmost images). In this condition, 123

constancy index drops to 0.2 [78]. Similar effects 124

78 How Human Color Constancy Is Measured? have also been explored in previous studies [50, 125

79 After establishing the problem, now the question 51]. In these cases, constancy is reduced but not 126

80 is how good the human visual system is at color completely diminished. 127
4 Color Constancy
Color Constancy, Fig. 4 Various stimuli used in color
constancy and color perception experiments. (a) Stimuli
used to study color constancy by [27]. Synthetic images
contain a flat test surface embedded in a relative complex
scene (b). The rendered images were used in a study of
color constancy of 3D object by Xiao and Brainard
[78]. The leftmost scene was illuminated by a neutral
illuminant, the middle scene was illuminated by a bluish
illuminant, the rightmost scene was illuminated by the
same bluish illuminant as the middle scene, but the reflec-
tance of the background surface has been changed so that
the light reflected from the background is the same as in
the leftmost image. (c) Photograph of a piece of fabric
draped over an object. The left image shows the original
photograph of the fabric. There is a significant variation of
color across fabric’s surface. Such color variation is
important for material perception. The right image
shows the same photograph in gray scale. A recent study
on tactile and visual matching of fabric properties shows
that observers make more mistakes predicting fabric’s
tactile properties with grayscale images than color images
(Photos taken by the author). (d) Translucent objects, such
as liquid, stone, skin, and wax, represent new challenges
for color constancy research. The photo on the left shows a
glass of fat-free milk illuminated from the front, and the
photo on the right shows the same glass of fat-free milk
illuminated from the back. One can observe that the color
appears to be slightly different when the illumination
direction is varied (The photos were taken by Ioannis
Gkioulekas from Harvard University)
 Color Constancy 5

2 3
128 Natural scenes are rarely composed of flat- rL
129 matte-diffuse surfaces. First, objects usually r ¼ 4 rM 5 (1)
130 have 3D shapes and are made of non-matte mate- rS
131 rial such as metal, plastic, or wax, which looks
132 glossy and translucent. Second, the objects in the The cone signals are subjected by adaptation. 173 Au5
133 three-dimensional space are arranged at different Von Kries proposed that the LMS cone signals 174
134 depths from the viewing point. Lastly, the light- are scaled by a multiplicative factor, and at each 175
135 ing condition often has complex spatial and spec- retinal location the gains are scaled indepen- 176
136 tral distribution. How good is human color dently [74]. For each cone class, the gain is set 177
137 constancy in natural scenes? The factors in natu- in inverse proportion to the spatial mean of the 178
138 ral scenes that have been studied include the signals from the cones of the same class. This 179
139 effect of three-dimensional pose of surfaces algorithm is called von Kries adaptation. The 180
Au4 140 ([7–11], Boyaci et al. 2003, [28, 29, 43, 63, adapted cone signals, a, can be obtained by mul- 181
141 64]), the effect of lighting geometry on constancy tiplying the cone signals a by a diagonal 182
142 [1, 58–60], the stereo depth on constancy [77], matrix D, where the elements gl, gm, and gs 183
143 the 3D shape, and the material that an object is represent the three gains: 184
144 made of on color constancy [32, 57, 59, 78].
2 3 2 3
145 Cognitive factors have also been considered in aL gL 0 0
146 studying color constancy [61, 69]. Some objects a ¼ 4 aM 5 ¼ 4 0 gM 0 5 ¼ Dr (2)
147 have characteristic color, such as bananas are aS 0 0 gS
148 yellow and cucumbers are green. How do we
149 take the prior knowledge of objects’ color into The von Kries adaptation inspired Land’s famous 185

150 account in achieving color constancy? A recent retinex theory [52], which has very wide applica- 186

151 work by Kanematsu [49] suggests the effect of tion in camera color balance and can be used to 187

152 familiar contextual object on color constancy is explain human color constancy for the flat-matte- 188

153 small. diffuse stimuli. The central principle of the 189

154 Figure 4 depicts several scenes used previ- retinex theory is that the lightness values at each 190

155 ously in experiments on color constancy. The pixel are calculated independently for each cone 191

156 associated stimuli effectively challenge existing class. For an analysis of the retinex theory and 192

157 theories of color constancy. color constancy, see a study by Brainard and 193

Wandell [18]. 194

Further along the visual pathway, in addition 195

158 Theories of Color Constancy
to cone adaptation, secondary adaptation is also 196
159 How does the visual system achieve color con-
proposed. The effects include gain control after 197
160 stancy? One approach to understand constancy is
the combination of the cone signals and also 198
161 to explain it using low-level visual mechanisms
subtractive modulation instead of multiplicative 199
162 such as chromatic adaptation. The color signal
modulation [46, 47, 62, 67, 75, 76]. 200
163 reaching the eye, C(l), is encoded by the
The adaptation models predict color con- 201
164 responses of three classes of light-sensitive pho-
stancy quite well for flat-matte-diffuse scenes. 202
165 toreceptors in the retina, which are referred to as
However, it often fails to predict constancy for 203
166 long (L)-, medium (M)-, and short (S)-
rich scenes [50]. We do now know how to obtain 204
167 wavelength-sensitive cones [17, 48]. Let us rep-
the values of the multiplicative gain from images, 205
168 resent the spectral properties of the reflected light
which contain spatially rich information. That 206
169 reaching the eye by the quantal absorption rates
being said, the mechanistic approach sometimes 207
170 for the three classes of cones. The light signal, r,
can inspire new algorithms for color 208
171 can be represented by a three-dimensional col-
constancy [38]. 209
172 umn vector (Eq. 1):
 6 Color Constancy

210 Another approach is to use a computational on the other hand, should aim at correcting illu- 255

211 method developed from a computer vision per- mination effects for real-world complex images 256

212 spective. As described above, color constancy is (see a recent review by [40]). 257

213 an ill-posed problem. Bayesian methods combine The best-known statistical method is the gray- 258

214 the information contained in the observed scene world theory, which assumes that the average 259

215 with information given a priori about the likely reflectance of a scene is gray [22]. Some other 260

216 physical configuration of the world [14]. In the similar algorithms include white patch and 261

217 case of color constancy, some prior knowledge max-RGB [36, 37, 52] and shade of gray 262

218 about the illuminants and surface reflectance [31]. The gray-world algorithm will fail if the 263

219 can resolve ambiguity. Earlier work has used average reflectance is not achromatic or if there 264

220 statistical constraints of illuminants and surface is a large uniform colored surface in the scene. 265

221 reflectance on solving color constancy such as the The incorporation of higher-order statistics in 266

222 gray-world, subspace, and physical realizability terms of image derivatives is proposed, where a 267

Au6 223 algorithms [22, 26, 33, 55]. Brainard and Free- framework called gray edge is presented 268

224 man [14] constructed prior distribution describ- [72]. Chakrabarti et al. [24] go beyond statistics 269

225 ing the probability of illuminants and surface in of per-pixel colors and model the spatial depen- 270

226 the world and then estimate the illuminant from dencies between pixels by decomposing the input 271

227 the posterior distribution conditioned on the images into spatial sub-bands and then model the 272

228 image intensity data. Brainard et al. [15] applied color statistics separately in each sub-band. 273

229 the similar Bayesian model to predicate the Forsyth [33] introduced the gamut-mapping 274

230 degree of human color constancy across method. It is based on the assumption that only 275

231 different manipulations and connect the variation a limited set of colors (canonical gamut) can 276

232 in constancy to the prior distribution of occur under a given illuminant. The model learns 277

233 the illuminant. a model based on training images (the canonical 278

gamut) and estimate the illuminant based on the 279

input features. 280

234 What Do We Know About Machine Color Inspired by Brainard [14], Rosenberg 281

235 Constancy? et al. [66] introduced a Bayesian model of color 282

constancy utilizing a non-Gaussian probabilistic 283

236 While human visual system is equipped with model of the image formation process and dem- 284

237 good color constancy, the digital camera has to onstrated that it can outperform the gamut- 285

238 rely on color balancing algorithm to discount the mapping algorithm. Gehler et al. [39] extended 286

239 illumination effect and extract the invariable the Bayesian algorithm using new datasets, 287

240 object color. This process is also called color which allows the algorithm to learn more precise 288

241 balance or white balance. The most popular priors of the illuminations. 289

242 method is based on adaptation such as the von A new thread of algorithms estimates the illu- 290

243 Kries coefficient rule and Land’s retinex theory minant using high-level features [5, 41, 53, 291

244 discussed above [30, 52, 74]. But this of this type 73]. For example, Gijsenij and Gervse [42] pro- 292

245 of model is restricted to simple scenes. posed to dynamically determine which color con- 293

246 In some sense, there is a significant overlap stancy algorithm to be used for a specific image 294

247 between the development of algorithms for based on the scene category. Bianco and Schettini 295

248 machine color constancy and the modeling of [6] proposed a model to estimate illuminant from 296

249 human color constancy. However, one distinction color statistics extracted from faces automati- 297

250 is the choice of stimuli. To understand human cally detected in the image. It takes advantage 298

251 color constancy, simple synthetic stimuli that that the skin color tends to cluster in the color 299

252 allow systematic manipulation of scene parame- space, which provides a valid cue to estimate the 300

253 ters are often used as experimental stimuli. illuminant. Inspired by human visual system 301

254 A successful machine color constancy algorithm, mechanisms, a recent study by Gao et al. [38] 302
 Color Constancy 7

303 built a physiologically based color constancy Retrieved from http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ 346

304 model that imitated the double-opponent mecha- abstract.cfm?&id=2483 347

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