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Fast and Ultra-Fast Charging for Battery Electric Vehicles -A Review

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DOI: 10.1109/ECCE.2019.8912594

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 Fast and Ultra-Fast Charging for Battery Electric
Vehicles – A Review
Camilo Suarez
Department of Electrical Engineering (ESAT)
KU Leuven - Energy Ville
Diepenbeek, Belgium
camilo.suarez@kuleuven.be
Abstract—- This paper intends to establish an overall up to
date review on Fast Charging methods for Battery Electric
Vehicles (BEV). This study starts from basic concepts involving
single battery cell charging, current and future charging
standards. Then, some popular power converter topologies
employed for this application are introduced, and finally a
summary of the industrial solutions available on the market are
presented, as well as the ongoing projects related to the extreme
fast charging (XFC) network expansion. Practical insights,
considering the current EV scenario, are employed to get a
better understanding of this topic. Special attention is given to
the modular design approach, analyzing its advantages and
some of the factors that influence the number and size of
modules that conform a fast charger solution
Keywords— Ultra Fast Charging, Extreme Fast Charging, DC
EV charging, CHAdeMO 2.0, CCS 2.0, BEV.
I. INTRODUCTION
Currently, global warming and its consequences represent
a big concern for the society. In 2015, road transportation
represented the 18,8% of the total EU-28 greenhouse gas
emissions [1]. Agreements between EU countries look for
reducing these values by 80% by 2050, and Battery Electric
vehicles (BEV) are a promising alternative to obtain the
decarbonization of the Light Duty Vehicle fleet [2].
According to [3], the Electric Vehicle (EV) market has had
an aggressive development in the last years, and some
European based car companies have pledged to go all electric
over the next four years [4]. However, there are still some
important social barriers that must be overcome to get the
expected BEV market penetration, mostly related to the cost,
distance range capacity, charging time and infrastructure [5].
Although, the distance range capability can vary a lot
among different car models, starting from the Hyundai IONIQ
Electric´s 200 km [6], passing through the Chevy Bolt´s 383
km [7], up to the 540 km of Tesla model S [8] it is possible to
conclude that current EVs in the standard segment suit
properly to cover almost 95% of the vehicle trips made in the
U.S. This corresponds to distances of less than 53 km [9].
Despite this, interurban trips are still a big concern for
potential EV buyers in some regions [10], turning fast
charging technology and its infrastructure availability a key
point for BEV wide acceptance.
As EVs range distance capacities get larger, the industry
works in parallel to reduce the charging times. The technology
employed for this purpose has been referred as Quick, Fast or
Ultra-Fast charging, involving power levels up to 120 kW.
Recently, Extreme Fast Charging (XFC) was introduced,
reaching power levels around 350 kW [11]. Its main goal is to
recharge a depleted battery bank up to 80% in 15 min or less,
Wilmar Martinez
Department of Electrical Engineering (ESAT)
KU Leuven – Energy Ville
Diepenbeek, Belgium
wilmar.martinez@kuleuven.be
depending on the specific BEV battery capacity, turning the
use of EVs in long distance trips more convenient.
However, charging times do not depend exclusively on the
charger equipment output power, but on the EV’s battery fast
charging capability. Therefore, the limitations related to
battery chemistry, its state of Health (SoH), State of Charge
(SoC) and temperature management system establish the
maximum power levels that can be reached [12]. This means
that the charging process could not be done at full rated
charger power, or even at constant power [13].
Accordingly, fast EV charging process and the related
solutions must consider different aspects beyond a high output
power. Some of these specific application characteristics are
addressed in this document, giving a better approach to this
topic.
This paper is organized as follows. Section II describes the
concepts related to battery charging and fast chargers. Section
III presents some common power converter topologies
employed for EV charging. Section IV introduces the modular
EV charger design approach. Section V summarizes some of
the main fast charger manufacturers and extreme-fast
charging infrastructure network ongoing projects. Finally,
section VI presents our conclusions.
II. BEV CHARGING PROCESS, FAST CHARGING STANDARDS
AND PROTOCOLS
A. Charging
According to the IEEE Standard “Technical Specifications
of a DC Quick Charger for Use with Electric Vehicles”,
charging corresponds to the process of supplying direct
current form an external power source to a battery, causing a
chemical reaction which leads to store electrical energy as
chemical energy [14].
A typical charging process of a single lithium battery cell
is shown in Fig. 1. It consists of two stages. During the first
one a constant current (CC stage) is applied to the cell, having
as result a voltage increase from 3,0 V, associated with a
depleted state, up to 4,2 V which corresponds to the nominal
cell voltage. At this point the cell voltage is controlled to
remain constant (CV stage) until the current reaches a value
close to zero.
The battery charging time can be reduced increasing the
value of the current employed at the CC stage, but high
currents can reduce the time of life of the cell or cause
permanent damage [15]. A simple analysis using a rough
battery model as the one presented in Fig. 2, shows that
employing higher current, results in higher loses due to the
internal resistance of battery cell. These loses are basically
expressed as a temperature rise in the cell as described in [16].
Therefore, fast charging requires an adequate thermal
management, maintaining the battery temperature within its
safe operating area.
CC CV
4,2
Voltage (V)
Voltage
Current
3,0
t0 t1
Fig. 1. Single lithium battery cell charging process, based on [16]
Determining the right moment to end the CC stage of the
charging process is another important aspect to be considered
at fast charging. A high current implies a high voltage drop at
the internal resistance of the battery, meaning that the actual
voltage of the cell could be still far from its maximum. This
could result in a premature beginning of the CV stage,
increasing the overall charging time. On the other hand,
extending the duration of CC stage could lead to an
overvoltage of the cell, which is also an undesired state.
RB
+ BMS
CC CV
-
VB
Battery
Cell Model
Constant Current (CC) Constant Voltage (CV)
Fig. 2. Battery cell model at charging process
A lithium battery cell is a complex electrochemical
system, and the estimation of its SoC can be done measuring
the cell voltage only under certain circumstances, the absence
of load and long rest periods are required. These conditions
are not met during the charging process, however, an accurate
estimation of the SoC and other parameters like the SoH, are
necessary to determine the maximum charging current the
battery can accept, as well as the end of the CC or CV
charging stages. This task requires a dedicated independent
system, often referred as the Battery Management System
(BMS). It is conformed by a series of hardware and software
that monitor the cell or cells that conform a battery pack or
battery bank and keep them under normal operating ranges.
Specifically, BEV batteries are conformed by thousands
of cells, and from one automaker to another, the number of
cells employed, its chemistry and its configuration differ
considerably, making hard to establish the appropriate
charging current by an external charger. Therefore, it is
required to establish a communication link between the on-
board vehicle’s BMS and the charger, making use of a
charging protocol that guaranties a safe charging process and
interoperability with different BEV manufacturers.
B. Fast Charger
The purpose of EV charger is to transfer energy from the
grid to the battery in a controlled way. This process can take
place inside de vehicle using an on-board charger, which
restricts it to a low power, or externally through an off-board
0,8 charger also known as DC charger.
On-board charger’s power is limited because of the space,
Current (A)
weight and cost restrictions to some few tens of kilowatts. This
equipment let the vehicle be charged directly from
conventional 1-phase or 3-phase AC systems, making use of
an AC/DC converter controlling the DC output current and
0,0 voltage.
t2 Meanwhile, Off-board chargers are not limited by space or
weight, its power levels can reach some hundreds of kilowatts.
Fig. 3. shows a conventional fast charger topology composed
by an AC/DC converter, a DC/AC converter, a high frequency
transformer and a rectifier. As depicted, the output of the
charger is connected directly to EV on-board battery, keeping
a communication link between the charger and the BMS to
control the charging process and safety procedures.
Power
line (+)
EV Charger Vehicle
v
AC/DC DC/AC Isolation Rectifier
AC mains converter converter transformer
3ф
On
v board
RB Battery
Power
line (-)
EV charger
controller
VB
Fig. 3. Conventional Off-board topology. Modified from [14]
Battery
Cell Model
Technical specifications for direct current charging or DC
quick chargers have been defined by the international
electrotechnical commission through the standards IEC
61851-1, 61851-21-2 61851-23, 61851-24 and by the
institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers through the
standard 20130.1.1. TM-2015. These documents define the
general requirements for conductive charging systems, EMC
levels and basic communication specifications, to assist
developers to reach interoperability of their designs and
equipment.
C. Standards
Currently, there are three dominant standards for fast
charging: CHAdeMO, CCS and GB/T. These standards are
partially compliant with IEC 61851 standard, or with an
equivalent standard as the GB/T 18487. They differ from one
another in the connector cable employed, communication
protocol, or security procedures. Nevertheless, maintaining
the general requirements for a DC charger.
The output power specifications for the DC chargers have
been updated from the first versions of the standards and have
been associated with Fast and Ultra-fast terms according the
power level increases. However, these kinds of denominations
have caused some confusions. Consequently, a more specific
classification is shown in Table I, considering the updated
information provided by CHAdeMO and CCS standards.
TABLE I. III. COMMON TOPOLOGIES
OUTPUT POWER LEVEL CLASSIFICATION FOR DC CHARGERS ACCORDING
CHADEMO AND CCS STANDARDS At the AC/DC stage, the Vienna rectifier and the Active
Front-End (AFE) rectifier have become popular implemented
Version/Power Class Output Power (kW) topologies. They are consolidated and well-studied
converters, which are suitable characteristics for the industry.
CHAdeMO

1.0 62.5 (500 V x 125 A)

1.2 200 (500 V x 400 A) At the DC/DC stage, isolated converters are preferred.
Although it is not mandatory to include a high frequency
2.0 400 (1 kV x 400 A)
DC5 5 (500 V x 10 A)
transformer as part of an Off-board charger, it could avoid the
DC10 10 (500 V x 20 A) use of massive line frequency transformers to isolate the
DC20 20 (500 V x 40 A) charger from the utility low voltage grid. Topologies having a
CCS

FC50 50 (500 V x 100 A)
HPC150 150 (500 V x 300 A, 920 V x 163 A)
HPC250 250 (500 V x 500 A, 920 V x 271 A)
HPC350 350 (500 V x 500 A, 920 V x 380 A)
Recently, CHAdeMO and CCS have defined power
charging levels above 350 kW and output voltages up to 1 kV,
beginning the standardization process for heavy duty vehicles
fast charging, like buses and trucks. This could also improve
the charging times of light vehicles. It also means that
theoretically, a Tesla Model S battery could be recharged from
0 to 80% in less than 14 minutes, but as mentioned before, the
charging time depends on the battery characteristics and its
capacity to handle high charging currents according to the
thermal management system capabilities present at the BEV.
As seen in Table II, there is not any commercial passenger
BEV capable of charging at 350 kW or even above 200 kW
yet. However, Porsche claims its all electric sport car, the
Taycan, to be released in 2019 will achieve this milestone,
introducing another major change, an 800 V battery pack
[17,18].
high number of switches handle high power ratings, which
helps to overcome possible semiconductor limitations in high
power applications. However, it is recommended to use the
minimum number of switches as possible [20]. In this context,
isolated Full Bridge (see Fig. 4) based topologies have been
proposed as common solution for DC chargers.
Isolated Full Bridge topology is employed in [21] and [22],
obtaining output powers of 20 kW and 50 kW respectively. In
[23] a three-phase dual active bridge converter is presented,
reaching 50kW, suggesting a power upgrade up to 100 kW.
Losses and noise can be reduced using soft switching
techniques, in [24] and [25] an LLC full bridge ZVS converter
is developed, achieving output powers of 10 kW and 20 kW.

TABLE II. BATTERY CAPACITY, VOLTAGE, DISTANCE RANGE

AND FAST CHARGE POWER OF SOME REPRESENTATIVE BEV. Fig. 4. Isolated Full Bridge topology.
Fast
Battery Battery Distance
Charge Recent developments in Silicon Carbide (SiC) devices
EV Model Capacity Voltage Range
Power
(kWh) (V) (km)
(kW) enabled the employment of Medium-Voltage (MV) grid
Tesla Model S 100 350 539 120 interfaced converters working as highly efficient solid-state
Tesla Model X 100 350 475 120 transformers [20]. According to [26] this approach effectively
Chevy Bolt 60 N/A 383 N/A reduces the volume and weight of an XFC up to six times
Renault Zoe 41 400 281 43 compared to traditional solutions. This is promising, but it is
Nissan Leaf 40 350 270 50 still necessary to research more deeply about the protection
Hyundai IONIQ 28 360 200 100 system required by this application at these voltage levels.
KIA Soul EV 30 375 174 50- 120
Audi E-tron 95 400 400 150
Jaguar I-PACE 90 390 470 100 IV. MODULAR DESIGN
Rapide E a 65 800 N/A 100 Employing a single converter to implement the AC/DC or
Porsche Taycan a 95 800 500 350
DC/DC stage of a DC charger implies big challenges, like the
a.
Not released yet availability of high current- high voltage transistors, high flux
Employing a higher voltage, specifically 800V to power a magnetic cores, and the design of the cooling systems. Even if
BEV has some advantages, as described in [19], summarized this can be overcome, this type of solution could not be
as weight reduction and less copper losses including cell and flexible enough.
module connections. This due to the reduction in the current
levels. However, a voltage increase does not reduce the stress In the literature there are many studies related to the
at the cell itself when charging at high rates. This is because, operation of energy conversion systems conformed by
a reduction in charging time always implies an increase in the multiple identic converters working in series/parallel
current levels, since the cell’s voltage is fixed regardless the configurations. These types of systems have multiple befits
total battery pack voltage. This turns the technology employed like: a) increase in the system reliability, b) low component
at Taycan’s BMS or at its battery solution even more stress, c) improved thermal management, d) enhancement of
interesting, assuming that the batteries should operate at high the efficiency at light load, and e) ease of expansion of the
C rates preserving the life time. power capability [27-28]. Specifically for DC chargers, items
d) and e) are very important considering the next scenarios:
 1) Wide voltage and current operation ranges: As seen
in Fig 5, a CSS HPC350 charger has an output voltage range
from 200 - 900 V and an output current range from 0 - 500 A.
This makes these chargers compatible with most of the BEV
on the market and also with upcoming models based on 800
V systems. Although, operate a single converter at high
efficiency over these wide range of loads is challenging.
Alternatively, increasing the number of active low power Fig. 7. (a) Modular charging station (b) Non-modular charging station.
converters in a modular design according the load demand is
more feasible. 4) Expansion and future power requirements: A modular
1000 design approach ease reaching future requirements, such as
Vmax=920 V OP3
higher voltage/current levels, higher power or even a
900
OP2 redistribution of the installed capacity among different
800 chargers at the same charging station, see Fig 8.
700 P max= 350 kW OP4
Voltage [V]

600
500 Imin=5 A
Imax=500 A
400
300 OP1 OP5
Vmin=200 V
200
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Current [A]
Fig. 5. CCS HPC350 power class- voltage and current range [29]

2) Non-constant power charging profile: Even the

charging process of a single BEV at high currents implies
load variations. As presented in Fig. 6 the charging power
does not remain constant, instead it is composed by steps,
beginning with a high-power level and decreasing it as the
Fig. 8. Flexible modular design for future requirements.
SoC gets higher, according to the directions given by the
BEV´s BMS. Again, maintaining a good efficiency at light
Determining the optimal number of modules for a DC
loads represents a problem when a single converter is charger is complex. A simplified case for a 150 kW
employed. installation is studied in [31]. This study considered some
factors such as the number of vehicles per charger, vehicle
battery capacity, arrival times and charging power share
strategy. The conclusion is that should be employed as many
110 modules as possible. However, bigger modules benefit from
lower cost per kW. As shown in Table IV the power per
90 module of commercial solutions vary from 10 to 50 kW.
Jaguar I-pace
Charging power (kW)

70 The use of multiple modules increases the complexity of

50
30
20% 40% 60%
Fig. 6. Charging power profile of some commercial BEV [30]
3) Number of concurrent charging processes: Charging
stations must have multiple chargers to serve some BEV at
the same time. Moreover, the vehicle characteristics may
differ considerably among the models, as well as the its
power charging requirements. Therefore, a modular approach
let to make a better use of the installed capacity of the facility
increasing the number of concurrent users, see Fig 7.
Kia Niro
the application, specifically at the control level. The operation
of multiple converters in parallel represented as ideal sources
is shown in Fig 9. It is not possible to parallel two independent
Hyundai Kona voltage sources or alternatively connecting two independent
current sources in series. Therefore, to control the output
80% 100% voltage of paralleled modules, only one of them can behave as
independent voltage source [27].
Modelling and control theory for paralleled DC/DC
converters are presented in [27-28], [32-34] some specific
works involving parallel rectifiers are found in [35-37].
However, is not common to parallel AC/DC and DC/DC
stages separately, on the contrary both stages conform a single
module.
 Voltage Source BEV Battery

RB TABLE III.
+ FAST CHARGER DEPLOYMENTS IN LEADING MARKETS
-

Module 1 Module 2 Module n

VB Number Charging
Network name Region of Fast Power Timeline
Chargers (kW)
Current Source (a) 2019-
BEV Battery Electrify America United States ~1800 350
2017
RB Ionity Europe ~400 up to 350 2020
Germany, Not
VB Belgium, completed
Module 1 Module 2 Module n Ultra-E 50-100 350
Netherlands, in 2018 as
Austria stated
Central Europe,
(b) 2018-
Fig. 9. Structures for paralleling ideal independent sources: (a) voltage Mega-E Scandinavia (20 322 350
2025
sources (b) current sources, based on [27]. countries)
Eastern Europe 2018-
Next E 252 50-350
(6 countries) 2020

V. FAST CHARGING NETWORK PROJECTS &

MANUFACTURERS
Currently, there are ongoing deployments of DC charge
stations for light vehicles with output powers up to 350 kW,
Table III summarizes some of the principal initiatives
according to information in [38].
The charging networks are intended to reduce the range
anxiety in interurban trips and cross border driving.
Furthermore, its implementation in cities areas is more
challenging mainly because of the impacts on the existing AC
infrastructure, requiring especial considerations like the
implementation of energy storage systems (ESS) or use the
charge station for reactive power compensation (RPC) [39-
41].
Some of the industrial partners responsible for the
manufacturing of the charge stations are presented in the Table
IV within another important players in this field. The
information collected intends to determine which are the
power levels offered by the industry and identify common
characteristics in the construction of this high-power
converters like cooling system, topologies, semiconductor
devices, switching frequency and semiconductor devices.
Unfortunately, the public information is restricted. However,
it was possible to identify that almost all the companies
employ a modular design approach, variating the rated power
between 10-50 kW per module. This gives more flexibility,
offering different total power ranges according to specific
requirements, like total capacity of the charge station and the
target vehicles to be charged.

TABLE IV. FAST CHARGER MANUFACTURERS- ORIGING,VOLTAGES, POWER LEVELS AND MODULARITY

Manufacturer Country Output Power (kW) Modular Module Power (kW) Output Voltage (V) Cooling

Tesla [31] USA 120 Yes 10 - -

50 Yes - - Liquid cooling

Tritium [42-43] Australia
175-475 a Yes - - Liquid cooling
Evtronic [44] France up to 350 - - Air cooling
ABB [45] Switzerland 175 up to 460 Yes - - -
Chargepoint [46] USA up to 500 Yes 31.25 200-1000 Liquid cooling
EVteQ [47] India 200 Yes 10 750 Air cooling

Siemens [48-49] Germany 150 Yes 30, 120 200-920 -

(AC-DC) 12.5 Air cooling

PRE [50-51] Netherlands 315 Yes 300-850
(DC-DC) 25 Air cooling
PHIHONG [52] Taiwan up to 160 Yes 30 - Air cooling
Ies-synergy [53] France up to 200 Yes 50 300-750 -
a.
Not released yet

VI. CONCLUSIONS
It is necessary to have an appropriate battery chemistry and
thermal management at the BEV that assure the performance
and lifetime when high C rates are employed at fast and ultra-
fast charging process. Therefore, high power chargers by
themselves are not enough to decrease charging times.
Currently does not exist any passenger BEV on the market to
benefit from 350 kW charging power levels. However, the
introduction of high-end BEV with 800 V systems are
expected to improve the performance and charging times of
average passenger BEV.
Considering the wide range of voltage systems and energy
battery capacity of passenger EVs, modular design and the use
of several units seems to be the best design approach for DC
Chargers, obtaining high efficiency and flexibility. However,
other type of DC Charging applications involving specific EV
models and non-concurrent charging, like electric buses,
could benefit from using less modules with higher power
levels.
Improvements in battery chemistries and development of
high duty electric vehicles could increase the average charging
power levels required increasing the average power of the
modules employed for the construction of DC chargers.
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