FEMINISMS AND MEDICINE

Feminist discourse since the 1970s critically examines medicine's role as a societal control agent and
its impact on gender constructs. The tension lies in acknowledging or negating the uniqueness of
women's embodied experiences. The second-wave feminist movement exposed medicine's historical
role in perpetuating differentiation among social groups. Some feminists challenge the oversimplified
medicalization thesis, asserting medicine's contribution to women's liberation through increased
fertility control. The passage underscores the persistent dual representation of women's bodies in
medicine as both weak and defective, yet simultaneously dangerous and polluting. Gender bias in
contemporary medical textbooks adds to the ongoing challenge of achieving gender equity in
medical discourse.

The development of gynaecology, a medical branch focusing on women's reproductive health,

reflects historical views on gender differences. Emerging in the 19th century, gynaecology
contributed to the idea that women are better suited for domestic roles, emphasizing their
connection to reproduction. Before the 19th century, distinctions between men's and women's
bodies were not as rigid. The change in thinking around 1800 is seen as both political and scientific.
In the 18th century, efforts to represent the female skeleton and emphasize gender differences were
tied to defining women's societal roles. The 19th century saw the centralization of gynaecology in
women's hospitals, introducing controversial tools like the speculum. Medical writings depicted
women as physically delicate, reinforcing the idea of their incompleteness. Menstruation and
pregnancy were treated as illnesses, and conditions like hysteria reflected societal expectations of
women. The 'rest cure' constrained women's potential for active resistance, reinforcing stereotypes
of femininity. In modern times, biases persist in gynaecological texts, focusing more on the patient's
husband and portraying women as designed for reproduction, reflecting historical views that
continue to influence contemporary medical practices.

Contraception and abortion have been central to societal ambivalence about women's autonomy
over their bodies and reproductive choices. Historical opposition, particularly to the contraceptive
pill, originated from medical resistance on both medical and moral grounds. The medical profession's
control over contraceptive regulation persisted even as acceptance grew. 20th-century contraceptive
technologies primarily catered to men's perspectives, often neglecting women's health. Media
ambivalence about the contraceptive pill reflected concerns about health risks and career choices for
women. The introduction of the abortion drug RU486 in the late 20th century sparked diverse
opinions, ranging from viewing it as a breakthrough for safer abortions to concerns about risks and
long-term consequences. The discourse on RU486 involved scientific progress, population control,
profitability, medical autonomy, and ethical considerations, highlighting the complex perspectives on
women's reproductive autonomy.

Menstruation in contemporary Western societies, while not incapacitating women, remains subject
to societal norms and taboos, marking them as different. Menstrual blood's symbolic significance,
linked to death and disorder, creates anxieties about its contaminating nature. Media ads
euphemistically portray tampons and napkins as "feminine hygiene products" offering protection and
cleanliness. Despite negative connotations, menstruation is associated with positive aspects of
femininity, maturity, fecundity, and bodily renewal.
Men's attitudes, explored through interviews, often reflect power dynamics, with some expressing
pollution beliefs about menstrual blood's uncleanliness. Women hold paradoxical beliefs about
menstruation, categorized into genres of emancipation, objectivity, and naturality. Premenstrual
Syndrome (PMS) receives negative attention, reinforcing stereotypes of hormonally ruled and
emotionally unstable women.

Menopause, traditionally private, gained public attention through debates about hormone
replacement therapy (HRT). It is contested, with medicalization framing it as a deficiency disease and
emphasizing the loss of femininity. Diverse interpretations of menopause reveal conflicting
discourses on its significance. Menopause, like menstruation, carries both positive and negative
meanings, influenced by cultural and individual perspectives. Language in medical discourses shapes
societal perceptions, often framing women's reproductive processes negatively as failure and decay.
The metaphor of the female reproductive system as an information-processing system reinforces
negative views of menopause as a breakdown.

The evolution of childbirth over two centuries illustrates the increasing medicalization of women's
reproductive experiences. Initially led by midwives, the 18th-century emergence of male physicians
marked a shift towards medical control, particularly with interventions like forceps deliveries. The
19th century saw the marginalization of midwifery, aligning childbirth practices with male-dominated
medical ideologies.

By the late 19th century, pregnancy became increasingly medicalized, framing pregnant women as
patients and emphasizing pathology. Routine interventions like anesthesia, forceps, and cesarean
sections became standard in the mid-20th century. Feminist critiques in the 1970s and 1980s led to
the natural childbirth movement, rejecting medical technology for a more mystical experience.

Debates over hospital versus home births challenged medical curative approaches. While the natural
childbirth movement aimed to empower women, it faced criticism for potential limitations and
societal expectations. Efforts to accommodate women's preferences raised concerns about true
shifts in power dynamics and individual agency.

The prenatal screening techniques, their increasing prevalence since the 1970s, and associated
concerns. It highlights the routine application of tests without comprehensive understanding,
emphasizing issues like inconclusive results, emotional distress during the waiting period, and
physical risks of invasive procedures. Feminist perspectives shed light on the potentially oppressive
nature of these technologies, as societal expectations prioritize "foetal rights" over maternal rights.
The conclusion underscores the societal focus on maternal responsibility, extending from prenatal to
postnatal periods, and the complex expectations placed upon women in their roles as mothers.

the intricate discourse surrounding female reproduction, particularly in the context of assisted-
conception technologies. It explores the conflicts within feminism and with medicine, emphasizing
divergent perspectives on motherhood and childbirth. The evolving meanings of "mother" are
discussed through various terms like "egg mother" and "surrogate mother." Feminist views on
assisted-reproductive technologies vary, from liberation to concerns about commodification and
patriarchal control. Media's role in shaping perceptions is analyzed, highlighting three discourses:
social loss, biological destiny, and medical hope. Poststructuralist perspectives challenge essentialist
critiques, advocating for women's agency. The text concludes by recognizing the complex interplay of
social, economic, and personal factors in shaping perspectives on assisted-conception technologies.

In conclusion, early feminist critiques of medicine questioned its role in oppressing women, while
poststructuralist perspectives challenged universal truths, emphasizing the influence of political
struggles and discursive representations. This evolution led to a nuanced feminist stance, recognizing
women's experiences as intertwined with shaping discourses and practices. The call for individual
choice in medical interventions reflects a departure from the perception of women as passive victims
of patriarchy. The diverse feminist positions highlight ongoing struggles over meaning in areas
impacted by medicine, revealing the complex interplay of power dynamics. Overall, feminist critiques
underscore the ambivalence inherent in contemporary Western attitudes towards medicine and its
effects on women's lives.