Heliyon 9 (2023) e14070

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon

Review article

Sintering of nanocrystalline materials: Sintering parameters

Bukola Joseph Babalola *, Olusoji Oluremi Ayodele, Peter Apata Olubambi
Centre for Nanomechanics and Tribocorrosion, School of Mining, Metallurgy and Chemical Engineering, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Nanostructured materials (NsM) are typical materials with structural length scales of one, two, or
Spark plasma sintering (SPS) three dimensions in the range of 1–100 nm. In the development of NsM, the microstructure of a
Grain growth material, which is an integral factor in determining the intrinsic performance of a material, is
Microstructure
susceptible to changes that may hinder the desired nano-state properties under different pro­
Nanostructured materials
cessing routes and associated varying processing parameters. NsM exhibits distinct superior
properties when compared to conventional coarse-structured materials. They exhibit distinct and
rapid development during production due to their unique surface area, which requires concise
control measures over coarse materials. These promising excellent properties of nanocrystalline
materials have caught the attention of material scientists and engineers towards their de­
velopments. In order to exploit the abundance of excellent properties of NsM, investigations on
the processing-structure-property correlations have been employed in recent years to understand
their complications and subsequent development of novel materials. This review aims to un­
derstand the sintering of nanomaterials, with a clear focus on the spark plasma sintering tech­
nique and its associated sintering parameters, bordering on intricate issues on densification,
coarsening of particles, and grain growth.

1. Introduction

As the world grapples with the effect of climate change and the growing demand for novel materials due to rapidly evolving
technologies, there has been an increasing need on the part of metallurgists and material scientists to synthesize advanced materials
which can help mitigate the problem. Advanced materials are engineered materials achievable due to advances in processing and
chemistry, which can enhance properties compared to conventional materials. Advanced materials with grain size or structural unit
attributes of 1–100 nm are referred to as nanostructured materials [1,2]. These materials include quantum dots, superlattices,
nanowires, nanoparticles, and nanotubes [3]. These materials can be defined as materials with nanometer-sized microstructures [4].
Nanostructured materials (NsM) are in high demand with growing prospects attributed to their spectacular dimensional, physical,
mechanical, corrosion, tribological, bio-compatibility, and superior functional properties like electrical and thermal conductivity.
According to their dimensions, these materials can be distinctively grouped into the following, as shown in Fig. 1; (i) 0D representing
the Zero-dimensional; which contains atomic clusters, oxides, and filaments, (ii) 1D representing the One-dimensional; this entails
materials such as nanotubes, nanowires, (iii) 2D representing the Two-dimensional oriented materials [5]; the thin films and multi­
layer systems are found in this group, and (iv) the 3D representing Three-dimensional group contains material structures of equiaxed
nanometer-sized grains in the nanophase regions. The feasibility of attaining a material structure in the nano-state, in terms of reduced

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: beejegs@gmail.com (B.J. Babalola).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14070
Received 11 July 2022; Received in revised form 20 February 2023; Accepted 20 February 2023
Available online 25 February 2023
2405-8440/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
B.J. Babalola et al. Heliyon 9 (2023) e14070

grain size in nano size, which promotes the attainment of novel properties, has attracted a lot of attention from researchers globally [6,
7]. The yield stress property of materials has a profound relationship with trends in a material’s grain size. The grain refinement rate of
a material contributes ti the nanostructured material’s strength intensity or indicator. This has found explanations in theories such as
the Orowan bowing mechanism, the Taylor relationship, and the Hall-Petch relation. The yield strength property of a material is
determined linearly on D− 1/2, where D is the mean grain size [6,8].
The beauty of NsM is that its microstructure can be manipulated, which translates to its ability to influence its properties. The
manipulation of the microstructure is mainly effective via the mode of fabrication. However, making changes in the microstructure of
NsM is challenging, as the processing route significantly affects microstructural changes during production. These changes occur in the
form of grain growth, with varied growth rates being dependent on the adopted processing route. Over the years, different processing
routes have been adopted for developing NsM, ranging from mechanical deformation under shear conditions, mechanical alloying and
attrition, and high-energy ball milling. However, when it comes to the development of bulk NsM, there remains the challenge of
maintaining the nano-state of the material after production. For example, conventional casting techniques have tendencies to attain an
end product with expected excessive grain growth and other relative defects. As a result, material scientists and engineers sought a
more novel approach that could help reduce excessive grain growth.
Since the advent of powder metallurgy, limitations encountered by conventional casting and other relative processing routes have
been reduced to a reasonable extent. For instance, the development of alloys and composites with elemental constituents exhibiting
high-density and high-temperature properties that conventional casting routes cannot develop is possible via powder metallurgy
routes. Notably, limitations encountered by these conventional processing routes are the elemental segregation during melt and the
limited operating temperature of the adopted processing route, which arises as a result of materials having high density and high
melting point attributes. One of the novel powder metallurgy routes is the sintering technique. Definitively, sintering accounts for
bonding one elemental particle to the other under heat and pressure with respect to a relative time.
It is expected that with the increased surface area of nanoparticles, an increased reactivity of the particles will be achieved. For
instance, the melting point of metals decreases with decreasing particle size. Conversely, this is not necessarily correct, as a threshold
exists where the melting temperature seizes to reduce by particle size reduction [9]. Relatively, the general conception of homogenous
melting attributed to nanoparticles indicates instant particle melting. This has been adjudged not to be so in many cases. More realistic
attributes of nanoparticles at a temperature below their melting temperature are rather the development of a liquid or liquid-like layer
or the initiation of a continuous melting process at the surface of the particle [10]. In addition, the surface energy is influenced by the
decrement in particle size [10]. Thermodynamically, a particle’s total Gibbs free energy is the summation of the Gibbs free energy in
bulk and the surface of the particle [11]. This is represented in equation (1) as follows;
GT = GT,bulk + GT,surf ace (1)

where represents the total Gibbs free energy, is the bulk Gibbs free energy, and surface is represented by. The Gibbs free energy attains
the same status in either liquid or solid phase at equilibrium, as well as the contributions from the bulk and surface in both conditions.

Fig. 1. Dimensional classifications of Nanostructured Materials.

2
B.J. Babalola et al. Heliyon 9 (2023) e14070

The contribution of the surface part is significant when the particle size is smaller, indicating that the nanoparticles contribute
significantly [9].
The liquid layer initiation on distinct particles’ surfaces connotes the occurrence of the bonding between particles [12] and the
simultaneous intertwined process of densification and grain growth. As such, attaining a bulk nanocrystalline material will amount to a
difficult task. According to Fang and Wang [13], nanomaterials undergo enormous grain growth during sintering which eventually
invalidates the objective of developing a nano-state end product. The intertwined relationship, thus, becomes a critical challenge for
material engineers and scientists because densification and grain growth share the same driving force and mass transport mechanisms.
Strategies toward retaining nano-size structures as end products and the ability to control grain growth during consolidation remain a
major concern for researchers. However, innovative sintering methods have been adopted to solve this problem, such as the spark
plasma sintering (SPS) technique. There have been so many reports on the development of bulk nanocrystalline; specifically, some
elemental-based materials based on different sintering routes such as microwave sintering, hot isostatic pressing (HIP), hot pressing
[13–15], and the exploration of related properties [16–20], to name a few. Still, none has been on the influence of the processing
parameters of SPS on the densification and grain growth of nanomaterials and their associated structural attributes. This review seeks
to outline the spark plasma sintering technique in the development of NsM and critically review microstructural evolution and
associated mechanical properties. The role played by the processing parameters in the sinterability of nanopowders in promoting
increased reactivity due to their higher or increased surface area [21] when compared to conventional coarse powders will also be
discussed.
Since the objective of producing nanostructured materials is to achieve distinct structural attributes and retain their nanocrystalline
nature, efforts must be in place to manage essential processing parameters than can alter research objectives [6,22,23]. The enhanced
mechanical properties attained via the sintering of nanopowders can be attributed to the increased parking factor of powder particles
by virtue of their size. The high surface-to-volume ratio of the particles is also a critical factor in promoting particle coarsening during
the sintering operation [7].

2. Process of sintering nanoparticles

The process of consolidating material particles via the application of heat at temperatures within 0.7 and 0.85 of a material’s
absolute melting point is known as sintering. The cohesion of particles is achieved without the material getting to its melting tem­
perature or liquid state. The predominant force that propels sintering operation is the reduction in energy between the surfaces of the
material’s particle surfaces [23]. The cohesion of particles initiates through the necking of particles, which is influenced by mass
transport phenomena with increasing temperature. Sintering techniques help fabricate dense nanostructured materials through
pressing and conventional sintering routes such as hot pressing, hot isostatic pressing (HIP), reaction sintering, and loose sintering
[24]. In addition to the aforementioned conventional methods is the pressure-aided method coupled with heat. This helps to close
down the total surface area and porosity available within the compact green state, thereby promoting inter-particle bonds between the
material particles and consequent reduction in their surface energy. Accordingly, more refined grains of a material’s powder tend to
have increased total surface area, drastically promoting the driving force of the entire sintering process [22,25].
However, the development of nanostructured materials through the sintering processing routes mentioned above is rendered
inefficient due to the development or formation of excessive grain growth in the end product [26]. This limitation arises as a result of
the nano-state of the material’s powder which connotes high surface energy and driving force and has been adjudged a vital challenge
[7].
In the development of an alloy material that contains an array of elements, it is apparent that the elements are of a diverse melting
temperature range. The temperature gradient between the elemental composition of an alloy material system is a factor that promotes
inhomogeneous structure and related material properties when conventional routes are employed [24,26]. Hence, key parameters that
require attention and management in the sintering of nanostructured materials entail the adoption of processing routes with the
following capabilities.

i. Achieving green compaction without cracks or anisotropic density properties,

ii. Prevention of impurities that may influence materials’ structure,
iii. Enhancing non-clustering of powders, and
iv. Adequate control of the processing parameters to impede grain growth.

However, the increased grain growth in the conventional sintering process may be attributed to extended sintering time. This is
possible because after sintering densification is attained, the grain growth continues courtesy of the elevated temperature regime.
Nevertheless, the Spark Plasma Sintering technique has been reported as a novel processing method showing the excellent capability to
develop nanostructured material. It has been proven to help mitigate the problem of grain growth via proper control of the sintering
parameters [21,24,27].

2.1. Hot pressing

This powder metallurgy route employs the combined effect of high pressure, high temperature, and low strain rate in the
compaction of particles to develop a bulk material. The ability to attain a highly dense material by this route is through the simul­
taneous application of pressure and heat. This helps to promote the rearrangement of particles and initiates internal stress between the

3
B.J. Babalola et al. Heliyon 9 (2023) e14070

material’s particles. Furthermore, it promotes a reduction in plastic deformation and grain boundary diffusion process. The entire
sintering operation occurs within an inert atmosphere or a vacuum to prevent oxidation [27].

2.2. Hot isostatic pressing

This powder metallurgy process utilizes the combined effect of high temperature and high hydrostatic pressure to consolidate fine
grain particles [28,29]; this is illustrated in a schematic diagram in Fig. 2. A cold isostatic pressing is regarded as the sintering pro­
cedure wherein heating is not always required but requires hydrostatic pressure for consolidation [30,31]. This type of powder
metallurgy route for sintering is user-friendly and has a wide operating window. The rapid consolidation process of powder materials is
attained under hot isostatic by the introduction of external pressure. Notably, the drawbacks of hot isostatic pressing include high cost,
enormous caution required during operation, and the need for the post-treatment of the hipped parts to desired shape and dimensions
[32–34]. It enhances the ability to effectively develop different waste streams, eliminating the need for a stringent vitrification process
[29]. Developing a material using this route entails placing the material in a container with no contaminations. These contaminants
can be presented in the form of air and moisture and can be taken out using a high vacuum from the powder. Once the contaminants are
removed, the cylinder is closed for the hot isostatic pressing to commence. The combined effects of the high inert gas pressure and high
temperature applied helps to eliminate the internal voids within the material, thereby promoting cohesion and a stronger bond be­
tween particles. The end product, the sintered material, exhibits features such as full or near full densification and a clean homogenous
structure with fine grain size. However, the major drawback of this powder metallurgy route is the extended duration of the sintering
process [29,35].

2.3. Spark plasma sintering (SPS)

Spark plasma sintering (SPS) is an advanced technique that can develop nanostructured materials such as nanoporous materials,
ultra-high temperature materials, biomaterials, functional grade materials, and nanomaterials [36,37]. SPS is known for its rapid
consolidation process [26,38] through the utilization of a high heating rate [25] and a reduced processing time [7,25,39–41] and at a
relatively lower temperature when compared to the conventional sintering route [39]. This aims to develop a material with full or near
full density coupled with reduced grain growth [7,21], thereby giving room for retaining nanostructured features in bulk-dense,
compact material [38]. The application of high current density pulses enhances the consolidation process of SPS, which promotes
the reduction in the overall sintering time and temperature and consequent grain growth rate [35]. The SPS process exhibits three
successive stages from full densification. These three stages are.

i. Rearrangement of the powder particles, Fig. 3(i),

ii. Localized deformation at contact points, as shown in Fig. 3(ii), and
iii. The bulk deformation of particles [42–44], as illustrated in Fig. 3(iii).

SPS is a versatile processing route, capable of attaining specified material properties according to the design of nanomaterials
benched on appropriate control of the processing parameters. Various research outputs have centered on investigating the effects of the

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of Hot Isostatic Pressing.

4
B.J. Babalola et al. Heliyon 9 (2023) e14070

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram representing the effect of sintering on metallic particles (i) neck formation, (ii) pore reduction in between particles as a
result of continuous necking and grain boundaries, (iii) elimination of pores.

SPS parameters on different material properties with the sole aim of attaining the optimum processing parameters to achieve desired or
novel properties. The development of nanomaterials through the SPS technique will affect the starting powder size. The distinct at­
tributes of the SPS technique to fabricate material at a temperature lower than its melting point and the ability to make changes and
control the operating parameters reflect the feasibility of sintering a material that can exhibit its intrinsic properties [36].
The SPS system is equipped with a computer-aided design platform where processing parameters are entered and controlled for
optimization. It also possesses a visual interface where the sintering parameters’ trends, such as pressure, temperature, holding time,
and heating rate, are monitored during the operation. A schematic diagram representing the SPS operation is shown in Fig. 4. Factors
that affect the heating rate and overall processing time during sintering count on attributes such as the capacity of the equipment,
nature, electrical and thermal properties of the material to sinter, the configuration of the die and properties, and supplied electric
power. However, in conventional processing routes such as hot pressing, the mode of heat transmission to the powder container is
through radiation within the confinement of the furnace via the heating elements and the possibility of convection of inert gas. This
enables the sample to conduct heat from the container; such a heating rate is low and amounts to a long sintering duration before the
process can be completed.
Furthermore, the heating efficiency of this conventional process is low, as a fraction of the heat generated for the sintering
operation is lost to the environment [45,46]. On the contrary, the SPS process effectively utilizes the heat generated and injected into
the sintering system to achieve full powder consolidation. The SPS process possesses a better heating system than the conventional

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of spark plasma sintering system.

5
B.J. Babalola et al. Heliyon 9 (2023) e14070

processing routes as a result of the direct current (DC) pulse, which is enabled via the graphite die punches and powder compact [1,27].
The pulsed current of the SPS machine executes functions as follows.

i. Initiating the resistive heating via the Joule effect, and

ii. Enhancing the diffusion rate as intermetallic diffusion and phase growth simultaneously occur [6,38].

The spark of the SPS is developed by the current initiating between the gaps available around the particles. The densification of the
powders is enhanced through the Joule heating created through the supplied power. The surfaces of powder with oxide layers and
gases are cleansed and activated through spark discharges, and the plasma developed during the sintering process, Fig. 5. This pu­
rification and activation of particle surfaces initiate the pathway for particle bonding. In addition, mass transport mechanisms get
activated by the electric current for enhanced sintering of powders. The resistive heating is localized on the particles’ surface and thus
promotes bonding and subsequent plastic deformation and consolidation of the particles. The sintering pressuring aids the rear­
rangement of nano-particles and helps to further break down particle agglomerations within the compact; this further promotes
effective densification of the powders [7,22,23,25,39,45,47,48]. Conversely, there persists ambiguity regarding the occurrence of
plasma in the literature [49,50]. In addition to mechanisms in SPS, joule heating which occurs due to resistance to electric current, is
another mechanism for the generation of heat with respect to metals. The resistance to electric current within the SPS system also
includes contributions from the graphite punch to die and graphite foil to powder interfaces. The maximum electric resistance
generated is believed to have emerged from the contact between particles. However, the contacts between the particles reduce as
densification increases due to the reduction in pores. Consequent upon reducing contacts between particles which results in increased
bonding and densification, the resistance to electric current decreases as the materials near full densification [49].
Thermodynamically, the sintering of nanoparticles is characterized by a significant driving force when compared to micron-size
counterparts [22]. It is crucial to indicate that SPS offers unique advantages over conventional sintering routes due to the ability to
manage the grain growth rate of nanostructured material by effective control of the sintering parameters, which promotes the
achievement of novel properties of sintered nanomaterials [1,26].
Notwithstanding, there have been few reports on the limitations of the Spark Plasma Sintering technique in the literature. In in­
vestigations conducted by Golla et al. [1] and Reddy et al. [23], it was reported that the Spark Plasma Sintering technique forms a
significant amount of sparking, which accelerates an abnormal grain growth, mainly during the sintering of nanostructured materials.
This occurs primarily when a high heating rate is utilized in the sintering process. An account was also given of the effect of the size of a
sintered material on densification. The larger the size of a sintering component, the more the inhomogeneity of the material properties,
such as the densification and other properties across the material. This indicates that sintered material from such larger sizes ends up
having anisotropic-oriented properties. In order to quell this limitation, a hybrid sintering method was introduced to mitigate the
challenge and reported [51,52]. This has helped in the sintering of larger dimensions with the aim of achieving isotropic properties
across the material.
The schematic diagram in Fig. 6 presents the comparison between spark plasma sintering techniques, as shown in Fig. 6(a) and
hybrid sintering, Fig. 6(b). As discussed earlier, one factor that remains critical to retaining nanostructured materials at different
processing routes is the control of grain growth.

3. Grain growth

Grain growth is the increment in grain size (crystals) of a material when exposed to high temperatures as a result of the reduced
surface energy of grain [53] and corresponding grain boundary surface area. Grain growth comes into existence as a result of the
aggregation of atoms from adjacent grains, which amounts to a reduction in the available number of grains and grain boundaries, as

Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of spark plasma sintering mechanism.

6
B.J. Babalola et al. Heliyon 9 (2023) e14070

Fig. 6. A schematic diagram showing a comparison between (a) spark plasma sintering (SPS) system and (b) Hybrid heating (SPS + resistance/
induction heating).

well as the free energy in the system. When grain growth occurs excessively during sintering as a result of poor densification, which
promotes increased diffusion paths, the resultant microstructure is poor. The factors that influence the strength of sintered materials
are density and grain size. This expresses the relationship between grain size and the strength of a material; in other words, the grain
size of a material has an inverse proportionality to its strength [1,24,25,54]. In as much the grain growth is affected by the processing
route, good attention or knowledge of the grain growth mechanism with respect to the adopted production route is required. This will
help predict and manage the factors responsible for changes in the material structure. However, achieving this does not come easily, as
some production routes do not exhibit flexing parameters which can help control or influence the behaviour of a material while in
production. Conventional production routes exhibit these attributes, and as a result, very rapid grain growth is recorded and utilized
when adopted to produce nanostructured materials.
When it comes to the grain growth behaviour of nanocrystalline materials, researchers have reported rapid grain growth at low
sintering temperatures but observed more reactivity at a critical temperature, which is beyond the material’s temperature threshold.
This propensity for rapid grain growth is mostly influenced by factors such as the particle size of the material, rate of agglomeration,
and reactivity [1,55]. The minimum active energy required to promote grain growth is low in nanocrystalline materials [54] coupled
with high atomic diffusivity [6] as compared to microcrystalline materials; this is dependent on the surface energy effect. Processing
parameters that also contribute to the grain growth of nanocrystalline materials are the processing (sintering) temperature and its
holding time [54,54,56]. A typical example of this behaviour was reported by Li et al. [54]; at increasing calcination temperature of
YSZ nanocrystals, there was a continuous disappearance of the small grains, which implies that the small grains are merging to form
larger grains as a result of increased mass transport between the grains. This is further explained in Fig. 7(a and b).
The temperature is a factor that determines the grain growth rate of a material. In contrast, the grain size increases with respect to
how much the material dwells at such temperature, which is the operating holding time at designated or increasing sintering tem­
perature. Since it is generally accepted that the grain size and density-related properties affect the strength of sintered materials [57], it
can be seen that processing parameters play a vital role. Moreover, apart from poor densification, one other factor that promotes
increased diffusion paths is grain coarsening, impeding proper densification during sintering operation and consequent defects within
the material. The inability to have control over sintering parameters for nanoparticles will result in excessive grain growth and
epileptic property tendencies of sintered products and inept performance in service [24].
Conventional sintering processes often display peculiarities of coarse structure, low material strength, and poor densification at
elevated temperatures. This has necessitated advanced sintering techniques to achieve enhanced material properties and performance
[6]. In as much grain growth is influenced mostly by temperature and other intrinsic factors of the powder [1], optimum control of the
sintering parameters with respect to materials reactivity during densification [22] are required to attain optimized microstructure and
associated properties of sintered materials.

7
B.J. Babalola et al. Heliyon 9 (2023) e14070

Fig. 7. Effect of different calcination temperature and isothermal dwell time on the grain size distribution of YSZ nanocrystals at (a) 400 ◦ C and (b)
1000 ◦ C [54].

Hassanzadeh [58] compared forsterite nanopowders developed by conventional and spark plasma sintering methods. The report
indicated that the spark plasma sintered forsterite nanopowders exhibited lower grain growth than when it developed using the
conventional sintering method, which exhibited high grain growth. In addition, the forsterite nanopowders developed using con­
ventional sintering method exhibited densification of 93%, lower to spark plasma sintered forsterite nanopowders of enhanced
densification of 99%. Liu et al. [59] reported that grain boundary diffusion helps to control grain growth via the study conducted on the
spark plasma sintering of pure TiCN powder. The grain growth kinetics is moslty propelled by the sintering parameters, notably the
temperature. The following sections present an in-depth discussion based on reported work from the literature on the role of the
sintering parameters on grain growth.

4. Sintering parameters

4.1. Sintering temperature

The sintering temperature is the temperature that initiates the diffusion process resulting in neck development and bonding be­
tween particles held together by cold welds. The sintering temperature is usually below the absolute melting temperature of the main
elements relative to other constituent elements blended to be sintered. Nanoparticle sintering occurs at a relatively lower temperature
than the micro counterparts. Various researchers have reported this, mainly attributed to the large surface area of nanoparticles. For
instance, the sintering of nano-crystalline ZrO2 initiates at a much lower temperature, which falls within 200 ◦ C lower than the
microsize ZrO2 powders. In addition, the melting temperature of nanoparticles also decreases with respect to reducing particle size
[22].
Many researchers [55,59–69] have documented in the literature the role of sintering temperature on grain growth behaviour and
the associated mechanical behaviour of sintered nanomaterials. Hussein et al. [26] fabricated nano-grained Ti–Nb–Zr biomaterials by
utilizing a spark plasma sintering technique. The authors reported that an enhanced density and hardness were observed due to the
small grain size of the sintered material. Reddy et al. [70] studied the influence of sintering temperature on the magnetic and structural
behaviour of nanoparticles of magnesium ferrite. The authors reported an increased density, grain size, and enhanced magnetic
properties as the temperature increased from 700 ◦ C to 900 ◦ C. As the temperature increases, the authors observed an increase in the

8
B.J. Babalola et al. Heliyon 9 (2023) e14070

grain size of the sintered material, which ranges from 74 ± 7 nm, 129 ± 4.7 nm, and 170 ± 13 nm at 700 ◦ C, 800 ◦ C, and 900 ◦ C,
respectively. At higher sintering temperatures, materials often undergo excessive grain growth coupled near full densification [7].
Pasebani et al. [71] reported increased densification as the sintering temperature increases in the investigation of nanostructured
ferritic steel processing. The authors reported that maximum densification was attained at 950 ◦ C. However, a poor densification trend
was observed at a temperature beyond 950 ◦ C due to particle coarsening, resulting in poor mechanical properties. The mechanical
properties reported were shear yield strength, and microhardness. In the sintering of Titanium/Carbonated Hydroxyapatite nano­
composite, the density and mechanical properties were enhanced when the sintering temperature increased from 900 ◦ C to 1100 ◦ C, a
reduction in the bio-activity property of Titanium/Carbonated Hydroxyapatite nanocomposite was observed when the sintering
temperature exceeds 1100 ◦ C up to 1300 ◦ C [72].
Jiangyuan et al. [73] studied the effect of sintering temperature on the microstructure and mechanical properties of
zirconia-toughened alumina, a machinable dental ceramic. A significant enhancement with increased sintering temperature was re­
ported for properties such as relative density, hardness, flexural strength, and fracture toughness. Consequently, the density and grain
size increase with increased sintering temperature as reduced porosity is attained. Ye et al. [74], in their investigation, also reported
that the density, hardness, and strength of carbonyl iron powder were enhanced as the sintering temperature and pressure increased.
The impact of sintering temperature on the densification behaviour of nano-sized and micro-sized Y-TZP powders was studied and
compared by Palmeira et al. [75]. The authors observed and reported that near full densification was attained by the nano-sized Y-TZP
powders at a lower temperature of 1350 ◦ C, while a similar amount of densification was attained by the micro-sized at a higher
temperature of 1530 ◦ C.
Ahsanzadeh and Razavi [21] reported an increase in densification and grain growth in their investigation. Zhang et al. [25] studied
the sintering of MgO nanopowders by understanding the effect of sintering temperatures on densification and grain growth. The
authors reported that the relative density and grain size increases as the sintering temperature increases. However, at the initial state
and with increasing densification (Fig. 8(a)), the grain growth was steady but became rapid at higher sintering temperatures from 1300
to 1400 ◦ C. The densification rate exhibits an almost insignificant increase at sintering temperatures of 1300–1400 ◦ C, which connotes
rapid grain growth. Consequently, the highest hardness value was attained at the sintering temperature of 1200 ◦ C. The hardness value
reduces as the grain growth increases at higher sintering temperatures of 1300–1400 ◦ C, as illustrated in Fig. 8(b). This reveals a vivid
relationship between the sintering temperatures, the grain growth exponent, and the microhardness of the material as a function of the
sintering temperature.
This indicates that the material may exhibit reduced mechanical properties at elevated sintering temperatures even when high
density and low porosity are attained due to rapid grain growth. The advantages of SPS, such as lower sintering temperature and
shorter consolidation, have aided the development of nanostructured materials compared to conventional processing routes [76–78].
This explains the relationship between sintering attributes such as sintering temperature, porosity content, densification, and grain
growth on the mechanical properties of sintered nanostructured materials.

4.2. Heating rate

The influence of the heating rate parameter on grain growth, mechanical, and corrosion behaviour of sintered nanostructured
material has been studied [79,80]. The sintering cycle and grain growth of a material are reduced by increasing the heating rate and
volumetric heating of the powder during sintering [61]. This was confirmed by Chengshang et al. [81] in their study, which stated that

Fig. 8. SPS response of MgO nanopowders (a) Plot of relative density and grain size versus sintering temperature at 30 MPa, and (b) effect of
sintering temperature on microhardness of sintered material at 30 MPa [25].

9
B.J. Babalola et al. Heliyon 9 (2023) e14070

a smaller W grain size was observed when a high heating rate was utilized in the investigation of the heating rate effect on W–Ni–Fe
alloys. Shongwe et al. [82] conducted a study on the impact of starting particle size of powders and varied heating rates on spark
plasma sintered Fe–Ni alloys. The authors reported that the relative density and hardness value of the sintered alloy increases as the
heating rate increases from 50 ◦ C to 100 ◦ C. However, when the heating rate exceeded 100 ◦ C, the authors observed a relative density
and hardness reduction. This was attributed to the rapid necking of the constituent particles, which promoted increased porosity and
poor densification. The authors added that the needed time for homogenization of microstructure was reduced due to increased
heating rate, which also affects the densification. However, it is projected that a nanostructured material may behave erratically due to
its low activation energy to initiate grain growth and high atomic diffusivity at a high heating rate and increased holding time.
Furthermore, during the sintering of nanomaterials, the excessive grain growth exhibited by a material may not be attributed to
only one sintering parameter. In as much as these parameters work seamlessly to attain full densification, exposure time, sintering
temperature, and heating rate contribute to grain growth. The high heating rate relative to the shorter holding time helps to reduce
surface diffusion in the material during heating, which may be capable of hindering densification. As a result, rapid grain growth is
hindered [83]. As Dariusz et al. [84] reported in a study conducted with increased pressure and heating rate at 300 ◦ C/min, the
compressive strength, elastic modulus, and microhardness properties were enhanced.

4.3. Holding time

Another key sintering parameter is the holding time. Grain growth may arise during the sintering operation when the holding time
is long at high temperatures, giving room for accumulating grains to form larger grains. Reddy et al. [70] indicated that a reduced
holding time is necessary to attain refined grains during spark plasma sintering. Firestein et al. [47], in their study on spark plasma
sintered Al-BN nanoparticle composites, concluded that increasing the holding time promotes the strengthenability of Al/BNNPs
nanocomposites. The authors added that the increased dwell time of 60 min resulted in reactivity between BNNPs and the aluminium
matrix. This results in the emergence of two-phase nanostructured Al-BNNPs. However, several authors [83] stressed the need to
control sintering temperature and time effectively, as these two affect grain growth tendencies during sintering. While reducing
holding time will help minimize grain growth, prolonged holding time after attaining full densification may result in excessive grain
growth and grain coarsening which means that the nanocrystallinity is lost.

4.4. High-pressure sintering

High-pressure sintering assists in attaining near-full densification and subduing grain growth during the sintering of nano­
crystalline materials [85–87]. Sintering processes done at high pressure have offered numerous advantages [85] by attaining full
densification and the control of grain growth. These advantages entail the feasibility of sintering at a relatively lower temperature [88],
power management control due to reduced power consumption, and consequent reduction in production cost via effective power
management and reduced sintering time. In addition, effective consolidation and sintering of powder particles [88] help to hinder
grain growth or coarsening during sintering operation to achieve a more uniform nanostructured [89,90]. The sintering of nano­
structured materials under high-pressure tends to exhibit enhanced densification. The strain induced by increased compressional force
on the grains may hinder grain growth and soften the particles at the sintering temperature [91].
According to Matovic et al. [88], high pressure of 4 GPa resulted in a relative density of 98% at a sintering temperature of 1500 ◦ C
and a dwell time of 1 min. The authors reported that the microstructure was void of porosity and had grain size in the nano range. Qiu
et al. [85] reported that increased pressure could aid improved densification of mechanically alloyed powders. However, Yongquan
et al. [74] reported a minimal effect on the structural evolution of carbonyl-iron powders as regards pressure.

5. Conclusion

A review of the influence of spark plasma sintering parameters on grain growth and densification characteristics of the sintering of
nanoparticle materials has been discussed. Spark plasma sintering is a novel technique for the fabrication of nano-structured bulk
materials. However, sintering temperature and holding time are key spark plasma sintering parameters that affect grain growth. The
sintering parameters work collectively towards attaining near-full densification of powders materials, which consequently promotes
attaining enhanced material properties. However, comprehensive knowledge covering the relationship between sintering parameters
and nanomaterial properties must be considered. This understanding will help control and manage grain growth effectively, attain
near or full densification, and desired material properties from sintering operation. The feasibility of sintering nanomaterials at high
pressure and a relatively lower temperature may assist in reducing the build-up of grain growth; this area can be succinctly explored to
sinter nanostructured materials. Other variations of the parameters are to be explored to control the grain growth better.

Author contribution statement

All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development and the writing of this article.

Funding statement

This work was supported by the University of Johannesburg (UJ), Johannesburg, South Africa (Grant no. 113847).

10
B.J. Babalola et al. Heliyon 9 (2023) e14070

Data availability statement

No data was used for the research described in the article.

Declaration of interest’s statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgements

The authors are indeed grateful to INER Lab at the Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa, and the Centre for
Nanomechanical and Tribocorrosion (CNT) at the University of Johannesburg for their facilities.

Abbreviations

NsM Nanostructured materials

SPS Spark Plasma Sintering
HIP Hot Isostatic Pressing
DC Direct Current

References

[1] B.R. Golla, B. Basu, Spark plasma sintering of nanoceramic composites, Compr. Hard Mater 2 (2014) 177–205.
[2] J.E. Contreras, E.A. Rodríguez, Nanostructured insulators–a review of nanotechnology concepts for outdoor ceramic insulators, Ceram. Int. (2017).
[3] L. Wang, J. Zhang, W. Jiang, Recent development in reactive synthesis of nanostructured bulk materials by spark plasma sintering, Int. J. Refract. Metals Hard
Mater. 39 (2013) 103–112.
[4] H. Gleiter, Nanostructured materials: basic concepts and microstructure, Acta Mater. 48 (2000/01/01/2000) 1–29.
[5] J. Yang, K. Kim, Y. Lee, K. Kim, W.C. Lee, J. Park, Self-organized growth and self-assembly of nanostructures on 2D materials, FlatChem 5 (2017/10/01/2017)
50–68.
[6] K. Dash, D. Chaira, B.C. Ray, Synthesis and characterization of aluminium–alumina micro- and nano-composites by spark plasma sintering, Mater. Res. Bull. 48
(2013/07/01/2013) 2535–2542.
[7] A. Sergueeva, D. Hulbert, N. Mara, A. Mukherjee, Mechanical properties of nanocomposite materials, Nanostruct. Mater. 1 (2009) 127.
[8] V.Y. Novikov, Impact of grain size on grain growth in nanomaterials, Mater. Lett. 132 (2014) 45–47.
[9] N. Wu, X. Lu, R. An, X. Ji, Thermodynamic analysis and modification of Gibbs–Thomson equation for melting point depression of metal nanoparticles, Chin. J.
Chem. Eng. 31 (2021/03/01/2021) 198–205.
[10] D. Vollath, F.D. Fischer, D. Holec, Surface energy of nanoparticles–influence of particle size and structure, Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 9 (2018) 2265–2276.
[11] W. Luo, W. Hu, Gibbs free energy, surface stress and melting point of nanoparticle, Phys. B Condens. Matter 425 (2013/09/15/2013) 90–94.
[12] M.R. Mazlan, N.H. Jamadon, A. Rajabi, A.B. Sulong, I.F. Mohamed, F. Yusof, et al., Necking mechanism under various sintering process parameters – a review,
J. Mater. Res. Technol. (2023/01/20/2023).
[13] Z. Fang, H. Wang, Densification and grain growth during sintering of nanosized particles, Int. Mater. Rev. 53 (2008) 326–352.
[14] R.M. German, Coarsening in sintering: grain shape distribution, grain size distribution, and grain growth kinetics in solid-pore systems, Crit. Rev. Solid State
Mater. Sci. 35 (2010/11/19 2010) 263–305.
[15] M.R. Akbarpour, S. Alipour, M. Najafi, T. Ebadzadeh, H.S. Kim, Microstructural characterization and enhanced hardness of nanostructured Ni3Ti– NiTi (B2)
intermetallic alloy produced by mechanical alloying and fast microwave-assisted sintering process, Intermetallics 131 (2021/04/01/2021), 107119.
[16] Y. Yin, J. Xu, M. Ji, L. Li, M. Chen, A critical review on sintering and mechanical processing of 3Y-TZP ceramics, Ceram. Int. 49 (2023/01/15/2023) 1549–1571.
[17] K. Guo, H. Lu, G.J. Xu, D. Liu, H.B. Wang, X.M. Liu, et al., Recent progress in nanocrystalline Sm–Co based magnets, Mater. Today Chem. 25 (2022), 100983.
[18] O.O. Ayodele, M.A. Awotunde, M.B. Shongwe, A.O. Adegbenjo, B.J. Babalola, A.T. Olanipekun, et al., Carbon nanotube-reinforced intermetallic matrix
composites: processing challenges, consolidation, and mechanical properties, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 104 (2019/10/01 2019) 3803–3820.
[19] X. Li, R. Lin, J. Hou, L. Wang, Sintering of metal-organic frameworks, Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 3 (2022), 100932.
[20] Z.D.I. Sktani, A. Arab, J.J. Mohamed, Z.A. Ahmad, Effects of additives additions and sintering techniques on the microstructure and mechanical properties of
Zirconia Toughened Alumina (ZTA): a review, Int. J. Refract. Metals Hard Mater. 106 (2022/08/01/2022), 105870.
[21] M. Ahsanzadeh-Vadeqani, R.S. Razavi, Spark plasma sintering of zirconia-doped yttria ceramic and evaluation of the microstructure and optical properties,
Ceram. Int. 42 (2016) 18931–18936.
[22] Z. Fang, H. Wang, Sintering of ultrafine and nanosized ceramic and metallic particles, in: Ceramic Nanocomposites, Elsevier Inc., 2013.
[23] K.M. Reddy, A. Mukhopadhyay, B. Basu, Microstructure-mechanical-tribological property correlation of multistage spark plasma sintered tetragonal ZrO 2,
J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 30 (2010) 3363–3375.
[24] V. Chuvil’deev, М. Boldin, А. Nokhrin, А. Popov, Advanced materials obtained by spark plasma sintering, Acta Astronaut. 135 (2017) 192–197.
[25] Y. Zhang, A. Song, D. Ma, X. Zhang, M. Ma, R. Liu, Sintering characteristics and grain growth behavior of MgO nanopowders by spark plasma sintering, J. Alloys
Compd. 608 (2014) 304–310.
[26] M. Hussein, C. Suryanarayana, N. Al-Aqeeli, Fabrication of nano-grained Ti–Nb–Zr biomaterials using spark plasma sintering, Mater. Des. 87 (2015) 693–700.
[27] N. Gupta, B. Basu, 10 - hot pressing and spark plasma sintering techniques of intermetallic matrix composites A2 - Mitra, Rahul, in: Intermetallic Matrix
Composites, Woodhead Publishing, 2018, pp. 243–302.
[28] A. Kumar, Y. Bai, A. Eklund, C.B. Williams, Effects of hot isostatic pressing on copper parts fabricated via binder jetting, Procedia Manuf. 10 (2017/01/01/2017)
935–944.
[29] S.M. Thornber, P.G. Heath, G.P. Da Costa, M.C. Stennett, N.C. Hyatt, The effect of pre-treatment parameters on the quality of glass-ceramic wasteforms for
plutonium immobilisation, consolidated by hot isostatic pressing, J. Nucl. Mater. 485 (2017/03/01/2017) 253–261.
[30] K. Essa, P. Jamshidi, J. Zou, M.M. Attallah, H. Hassanin, Porosity control in 316L stainless steel using cold and hot isostatic pressing, Mater. Des. 138 (2018/01/
15/2018) 21–29.
[31] A.P. Srivastava, M. Tong, T. Ștefanov, D.J. Browne, Elimination of porosity in bulk metallic glass castings using hot isostatic pressing, J. Non-Cryst. Solids 468
(2017/07/15/2017) 5–11.

11
B.J. Babalola et al. Heliyon 9 (2023) e14070

[32] B.J. Babalola, M.B. Shongwe, B.A. Obadele, P.A. Olubambi, Densification, microstructure and mechanical properties of spark plasma sintered Ni-17%Cr binary
alloys, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 101 (2019/04/01 2019) 1573–1581.
[33] O.J. Akinribide, G.N. Mekgwe, S.O. Akinwamide, F. Gamaoun, C. Abeykoon, O.T. Johnson, et al., A review on optical properties and application of transparent
ceramics, J. Mater. Res. Technol. 21 (2022/11/01/2022) 712–738.
[34] T.G. Aguirre, B.W. Lamm, C.L. Cramer, D.J. Mitchell, Zirconium-diboride silicon-carbide composites: a review, Ceram. Int. 48 (2022/03/15/2022) 7344–7361.
[35] J. Gubicza, Chapter 1 - processing methods of nanomaterials, in: Defect Structure and Properties of Nanomaterials, Second and Extended Edition, Woodhead
Publishing, 2017, pp. 1–25.
[36] E. Ghasali, M. Alizadeh, A.H. Pakseresht, T. Ebadzadeh, Preparation of silicon carbide/carbon fiber composites through high-temperature spark plasma
sintering, J. Asian Ceramic Soc. 5 (2017/12/01/2017) 472–478.
[37] M.B. Shongwe, S. Diouf, M.O. Durowoju, P.A. Olubambi, M.M. Ramakokovhu, B.A. Obadele, A comparative study of spark plasma sintering and hybrid spark
plasma sintering of 93W–4.9Ni–2.1Fe heavy alloy, Int. J. Refract. Metals Hard Mater. 55 (2016/02/01/2016) 16–23.
[38] B. Debalina, N. Vaishakh, M. Jagannatham, K. Vasanthakumar, N. Karthiselva, R. Vinu, et al., Effect of different nano-carbon reinforcements on microstructure
and properties of TiO 2 composites prepared by spark plasma sintering, Ceram. Int. 42 (2016) 14266–14277.
[39] W. Daoush, A. Francis, Y. Lin, R. German, An exploratory investigation on the in-situ synthesis of SiC/AlN/Al composites by spark plasma sintering, J. Alloys
Compd. 622 (2015) 458–462.
[40] H. Yu, A. Sabahi Namini, S.A. Delbari, Q.V. Le, D. Kim, J.H. Cha, et al., Microstructure of spark plasma sintered TiC–TiB2–SiCw composite, Mater. Chem. Phys.
281 (2022/04/01/2022), 125877.
[41] H. Yu, A.S. Namini, M.S. Shakeri, S.A. Delbari, Q. Van Le, J.H. Cha, et al., HRTEM study and mechanical properties of ZrB2–SiC composite: an insight into in-situ
carbon formation over the SPS process, Int. J. Refract. Metals Hard Mater. 104 (2022/04/01/2022), 105789.
[42] M.B. Shongwe, S. Diouf, M.O. Durowoju, P.A. Olubambi, Effect of sintering temperature on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Fe–30%Ni alloys
produced by spark plasma sintering, J. Alloys Compd. 649 (2015/11/15/2015) 824–832.
[43] B.J. Babalola, O.J. Akinribide, O.S. Akinwamide, P.A. Olubambi, Mechanical and tribological studies of sintered nickel-based ternary alloys, World J. Eng.
(2021) ahead-of-print.
[44] B.J. Babalola, S. Salifu, P.A. Olubambi, Effect of mechanical milling on the mechanical, dry sliding wear, and impact response of sintered nickel based
superalloy, J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 29 (2020/12/01 2020) 8348–8358.
[45] A.V. Ragulya, Fundamentals of spark plasma sintering, in: Reference Module in Materials Science and Materials Engineering, Elsevier, 2016.
[46] M. Suárez, A. Fernández, J. Menéndez, R. Torrecillas, H. Kessel, J. Hennicke, et al., Challenges and opportunities for spark plasma sintering: a key technology for
a new generation of materials, in: Sintering Applications, InTech, 2013.
[47] K.L. Firestein, A.E. Steinman, I.S. Golovin, J. Cifre, E.A. Obraztsova, A.T. Matveev, et al., Fabrication, characterization, and mechanical properties of spark
plasma sintered Al–BN nanoparticle composites, Mater. Sci. Eng., A 642 (2015) 104–112.
[48] B.J. Babalola, M.B. Shongwe, A.L. Rominiyi, P.L. Lepele, A.P.I. Popoola, The fabrication and characterization of spark plasma sintered nickel based binary alloy
at different heating rate, J. Micro Nano-Manufacturing 7 (2019).
[49] N. Chawake, L.D. Pinto, A.K. Srivastav, K. Akkiraju, B.S. Murty, R.S. Kottada, On Joule heating during spark plasma sintering of metal powders, Scripta Mater.
93 (2014/12/15/2014) 52–55.
[50] J. Trapp, B. Kieback, Fundamental principles of spark plasma sintering of metals: part I – Joule heating controlled by the evolution of powder resistivity and
local current densities, Powder Metall. 62 (2019/10/20 2019) 297–306.
[51] O. Ayodele, M. Awotunde, M. Shongwe, B. Obadele, B. Babalola, P. Olubambi, Densification and microstructures of hybrid sintering of titanium alloy, Mater.
Today Proc. 28 (2020) 781–784.
[52] O.O. Ayodele, M.A. Awotunde, M.B. Shongwe, A.O. Adegbenjo, B.J. Babalola, B.A. Obadele, et al., Evaluation of wear and corrosion behaviour of hybrid
sintered Ti6Al4V alloy, in: Key Engineering Materials, 2019, pp. 321–326.
[53] A.S. Rogachev, Grain growth, in: Concise Encyclopedia of Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2017, pp. 144–145.
[54] L. Fei, L. Yanhuai, S. Zhongxiao, X. Kewei, M. Dayan, G. Bo, et al., Grain growth characteristics of hydrothermally prepared yttria stabilized zirconia
nanocrystals during calcination, Rare Met. Mater. Eng. 46 (2017) 899–905.
[55] C. Ren, Z.Z. Fang, H. Zhang, M. Koopman, The study on low temperature sintering of nano-tungsten powders, Int. J. Refract. Metals Hard Mater. 61 (2016)
273–278.
[56] V.Y. Novikov, Grain growth in nanocrystalline materials, Mater. Lett. 159 (2015) 510–513.
[57] K. Chen, X. Chen, D. Ding, G. Shi, Z. Wang, Formation mechanism of in-situ nanostructured grain in cast Cu–10Sn–2Zn–1.5Fe–0.5Co (wt.%) alloy, Mater. Des.
94 (2016/03/15/2016) 338–344.
[58] S.A. Hassanzadeh-Tabrizi, Spark plasma sintering of forsterite nanopowder and mechanical properties of sintered materials, Ceram. Int. (2017).
[59] G. Liu, R. Li, T. Yuan, M. Zhang, F. Zeng, Spark plasma sintering of pure TiCN: densification mechanism, grain growth and mechanical properties, Int. J. Refract.
Metals Hard Mater. 66 (2017/08/01/2017) 68–75.
[60] M.I. Makena, M.B. Shongwe, M.M. Ramakokovhu, P.A. Olubambi, Effect of sintering parameters on densification, corrosion and wear behaviour of Ni-50Fe alloy
prepared by spark plasma sintering, J. Alloys Compd. 699 (2017/03/30/2017) 1166–1179.
[61] P.N. Browning, J. Fignar, A. Kulkarni, J. Singh, Sintering behavior and mechanical properties of Mo-TZM alloyed with nanotitanium carbide, Int. J. Refract.
Metals Hard Mater. 62 (2017) 78–84.
[62] H. Amel-Farzad, E. Taheri-Nassaj, D. Meertens, R.E. Dunin-Borkowski, A.H. Tavabi, Low temperature pressureless “immediate sintering” of a novel
nanostructured WC/Co/NiCrSiB-alloy cemented carbide, Scripta Mater. 139 (2017/10/01/2017) 100–103.
[63] F.R. Bueta, J.F. Imperial, R.B. Cervera, Structure and conductivity of NiO/YSZ composite prepared via modified glycine-nitrate process at varying sintering
temperatures, Ceram. Int. 43 (2017/12/15/2017) 16174–16177.
[64] R.A. Youness, M.A. Taha, M.A. Ibrahim, Effect of sintering temperatures on the in vitro bioactivity, molecular structure and mechanical properties of titanium/
carbonated hydroxyapatite nanobiocomposites, J. Mol. Struct. 1150 (2017/12/15/2017) 188–195.
[65] L. Zhang, Y. Ben, H. Chen, D. Tang, X. Fu, R. Sun, et al., Low temperature-sintering and microstructure of highly transparent yttria ceramics, J. Alloys Compd.
695 (2017/02/25/2017) 2580–2586.
[66] R.S. Maurya, A. Sahu, T. Laha, Effect of sintering temperature on phase transformation during consolidation of mechanically alloyed Al86Ni6Y6Co2 amorphous
powders by spark plasma sintering, J. Non-Cryst. Solids 453 (2016/12/01/2016) 1–7.
[67] Z. Li, Z. Lu, R. Xie, C. Lu, C. Liu, Effect of spark plasma sintering temperature on microstructure and mechanical properties of 14Cr-ODS ferritic steels, Mater. Sci.
Eng., A 660 (2016/04/13/2016) 52–60.
[68] L. Jiang, S. Guo, Y. Bian, M. Zhang, W. Ding, Effect of sintering temperature on mechanical properties of magnesia partially stabilized zirconia refractory,
Ceram. Int. 42 (2016/07/01/2016) 10593–10598.
[69] R. Yamanoglu, N. Gulsoy, E.A. Olevsky, H.O. Gulsoy, Production of porous Ti5Al2.5Fe alloy via pressureless spark plasma sintering, J. Alloys Compd. 680
(2016/09/25/2016) 654–658.
[70] M.P. Reddy, R. Shakoor, A. Mohamed, M. Gupta, Q. Huang, Effect of sintering temperature on the structural and magnetic properties of MgFe 2 O 4 ceramics
prepared by spark plasma sintering, Ceram. Int. 42 (2016) 4221–4227.
[71] S. Pasebani, I. Charit, Y. Wu, J. Burns, K.N. Allahar, D.P. Butt, et al., Lanthana-bearing nanostructured ferritic steels via spark plasma sintering, J. Nucl. Mater.
470 (2016) 297–306.
[72] R.A. Youness, M.A. Taha, M.A. Ibrahim, Effect of sintering temperatures on the in vitro bioactivity, molecular structure and mechanical properties of titanium/
carbonated hydroxyapatite nanobiocomposites, J. Mol. Struct. (2017/08/20/2017).
[73] J. Fan, T. Lin, F. Hu, Y. Yu, M. Ibrahim, R. Zheng, et al., Effect of sintering temperature on microstructure and mechanical properties of zirconia-toughened
alumina machinable dental ceramics, Ceram. Int. 43 (2017/03/01/2017) 3647–3653.

12
B.J. Babalola et al. Heliyon 9 (2023) e14070

[74] Y. Ye, X. Li, Z. Cheng, M. Zhang, S. Qu, The influence of sintering temperature and pressure on microstructure and mechanical properties of carbonyl iron
powder materials fabricated by electric current activated sintering, Vacuum 137 (2017/03/01/2017) 137–147.
[75] A.A. Palmeira, M.J. Bondioli, K. Strecker, C.d. Santos, Densification and grain growth of nano- and micro-sized Y-TZP powders, Ceram. Int. 42 (2016/02/01/
2016) 2662–2669.
[76] V.N. Chuvildeev, D.V. Panov, M.S. Boldin, A.V. Nokhrin, Y.V. Blagoveshchensky, N.V. Sakharov, et al., Structure and properties of advanced materials obtained
by Spark Plasma Sintering, Acta Astronaut. 109 (2015/04/01/2015) 172–176.
[77] A. Mohammadnejad, A. Bahrami, M. Sajadi, P. Karimi, H.R. Fozveh, M.Y. Mehr, Microstructure and mechanical properties of spark plasma sintered
nanocrystalline Ni3Al-xB (0.0<x<1.5 at%) alloy, Mater. Today Commun. 17 (2018/12/01/2018) 161–168.
[78] T. Larimian, V. Chaudhary, J. Christudasjustus, R.V. Ramanujan, R. Gupta, T. Borkar, Bulk-nano spark plasma sintered Fe-Si-B-Cu-Nb based magnetic alloys,
Intermetallics 124 (2020/09/01/2020), 106869.
[79] O. Ertugrul, H.S. Park, K. Onel, M. Willert-Porada, Effect of particle size and heating rate in microwave sintering of 316L stainless steel, Powder Technol. 253
(2014/02/01/2014) 703–709.
[80] A. Mondal, A. Upadhyaya, D. Agrawal, Effect of heating mode and sintering temperature on the consolidation of 90W–7Ni–3Fe alloys, J. Alloys Compd. 509
(2011/01/12/2011) 301–310.
[81] C. Zhou, J. Yi, S. Luo, Y. Peng, L. Li, G. Chen, Effect of heating rate on the microwave sintered W–Ni–Fe heavy alloys, J. Alloys Compd. 482 (2009/08/12/2009)
L6–L8.
[82] M. Shongwe, M. Ramakokovhu, S. Diouf, M. Durowoju, B. Obadele, R. Sule, et al., Effect of starting powder particle size and heating rate on spark plasma
sintering of Fe Ni alloys, J. Alloys Compd. 678 (2016) 241–248.
[83] M.U.F. Khan, A. Patil, J. Christudasjustus, T. Borkar, R.K. Gupta, Spark plasma sintering of a high-energy ball milled Mg-10 wt% Al alloy, J. Mag. Alloys 8
(2020/06/01/2020) 319–328.
[84] D. Garbiec, P. Siwak, A. Mróz, Effect of compaction pressure and heating rate on microstructure and mechanical properties of spark plasma sintered Ti6Al4V
alloy, Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng. 16 (2016/09/01/2016) 702–707.
[85] W.T. Qiu, Y. Pang, Z. Xiao, Z. Li, Preparation of W-Cu alloy with high density and ultrafine grains by mechanical alloying and high pressure sintering, Int. J.
Refract. Metals Hard Mater. 61 (2016/12/01/2016) 91–97.
[86] P.F. Yu, L.J. Zhang, H. Cheng, H. Zhang, M.Z. Ma, Y.C. Li, et al., The high-entropy alloys with high hardness and soft magnetic property prepared by mechanical
alloying and high-pressure sintering, Intermetallics 70 (2016/03/01/2016) 82–87.
[87] D. Ma, Z. Kou, Y. Liu, Y. Wang, S. Gao, X. Luo, et al., Sub-micron binderless tungsten carbide sintering behavior under high pressure and high temperature, Int.
J. Refract. Metals Hard Mater. 54 (2016/01/01/2016) 427–432.
[88] B. Matovic, F. Zivic, S. Mitrovic, D. Prsic, V. Maksimovic, T. Volkov-Husovic, et al., Ultra-high pressure densification and properties of nanostructured SiC,
Mater. Lett. 164 (2016/02/01/2016) 68–71.
[89] P. Zou, G. Xu, S. Wang, P. Chen, F. Huang, Effect of high pressure sintering and annealing on microstructure and thermoelectric properties of nanocrystalline
Bi2Te2.7Se0.3 doped with Gd, Prog. Nat. Sci.: Mater. Int. 24 (2014/06/01/2014) 210–217.
[90] B.L. Bayode, M.L. Lethabane, P.A. Olubambi, I. Sigalas, M.B. Shongwe, M.M. Ramakokovhu, Densification and micro-structural characteristics of spark plasma
sintered Ti-Zr-Ta powders, Powder Technol. 321 (2017/11/01/2017) 471–478.
[91] S. Wang, D. He, Y. Zou, J. Wei, L. Lei, Y. Li, et al., High-pressure and high-temperature sintering of nanostructured bulk NiAl materials, J. Mater. Res. 24 (2009)
2089–2096.

13