Topic: State Formation and Political Transformation in Hausaland.

Introduction

The area traditionally inhabited by the Hausa is contained within a region extending from Air
mountain in the north to the northern edge of Jos plateau in the south and from the border of
the ancient kanem-Bornu kingdom in the east to the Niger valley in the west. In this area, from
very early on, Hausa was the only known indigenous language. As if to emphasize the
importance of that language, the territory had no particular name and was simply called kasar
hausa- the country of the Hausa language. However, though migrations and assimilation, the
area in which Hausa was used as the main vehicle of communication expanded towards the
south and west, and, in the north, a number of non-Hausa peoples, especially the Tuarge, the
Zabarma/Djerma and the Fulbe/Fulani entered the territory and settled there.

Some Notes On The Hausa Language and People

The Hausa-speaking peoples are the most populous groups in the modern day Northern Nigeria.
Although the Hausa are said not to be one tribe or race, their possession of a common language
and common culture makes them look like a nation. The word "Hausa" refers more to the
language than to the people. While the derivation and antiquity of the word "Hausa" are unknown,
scholars have suggested some probable linguistic sources:

1. It is derived from "Kasar Hausa" ie "The Land of Hausa language".

2. It is derived from "Hau" and "Sa" meaning "Ride" and "cow" i,e "Ride a cow".

3. It is derived from the Songhai word for "East" which is "Hausa".

In spite of these three possible and probable origins of the word "Hausa", there has been no
generally acknowledged origin and the word.
The term Hausa as the ethnonym for peoples of Hausaland has appeared in the written sources
only since the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Until that time, these peoples were known
by the names of their particular cities or kingdoms - Kanawa, Kastinawa, Gobirawa and so on. At
the beginning of the sixteenth century, Leo Africanus wrote that the common language in the
area which today forms northern Nigeria was Gobir. However, the Egyptian historian al-Suyuti
(1445-1505) used the term "Hausa' for the territory in his Epistles to the king's of the Sudan,
Hausa and al-Takrur. Likewise the Timbuktu authors of the Tarikh al-Fattash and the Tarikh al-
Südân regularly employed the term Hausa to refer to the areas on the left bank of the Niger
inhabited by the Hausa people, contrasting it with Gurma, which they used to describe those on
the right bank. Originally, the term Hausa referred only to the mother tongue of the inhabitants
of Hausaland, whereas the people actually called themselves 'Hausawa' (that is, speakers of the
Hausa language). Sometimes, however, Hausa referred merely to the territorade up of the
former Zamfara, Kebbi and Gobir kingdoms, thereby Indirectly confirming the Sudanic
Chronicles, since these kingdoms were the nearest Hausa lands to Songhay. The Hausa
language is not only one of the most widely spoken languages in West Africa but the Hausa are
one of the largest ethic groups in West Africa. It is important to stress that the northern part of
Nigeria is regarded as the homeland of the Hausa-speaking people worldwide.

The history of state formation and political transformation in Hausaland could be divided into
two periods - pre-Birni times and the era of the Birane. The word "birni" means "city" while
"Birane" is the plural form which means "cities or kingdoms". Hausaland, during these two
periods had some distinctive characteristics,

Hausaland in the pre-Brini Period

There is very little knowledge of what Hausa societies looked like before the emergence of the
state-like political organizations. The early Hausa societies are organized in small agriculture
communities called Kauyuka or Unguwoyi (their singulars are Kauye or Unguwa respectively).
These were nucleated Hamlet's organized for crop production and consisting of family groups
whose farmland (gona, gandu) was contiguous and separated from that of other Kauyuka by
waste (daji). There were as many as possible Kauyuka in a community.

In terms of social organization, the overall leadership (Sarauta) in a Hausa Kauyuka was vested
in a ruler called Sarki who was responsible for the settlement of cases transcending the family
groups, particularly issues relating to the economy. There was also the office of "Sarkin Noma"
ie "the king of farming" who had the duty of organizing the agriculture of the hamlet, including
the religious ritual relating to the seasons. Indeed, social authority not relating to agriculture,
resided in the individual family heads, which was the family leader. Each Kauye (an Hausa
hamlet) comprised a collection of patrilineal family groups which formed gidaje (singular gida).
The family head was called Maigida.

Importantly, the political authority in the early Hausa communities was based on kinship
relations. This is because all families within the Kauye group were related to one another in
spite of the fact that the Sarkin Mom's wielded authority over several gidaje. Kinship
terminology was used to describe offices like that of the Sarkin Noma. Such terminologies
Include Uban Farauta (father or hunting) as the leader of the hunters, Sarkin Dogarai (head of
king's bodyguard), Sarkin Yan Doka (head of the police), Magaji (head of the treasury), Sarkin
Kasuwa (head of the market), Sarkin Kofa (gatekeeper), Mai-unguwa (ward head), etc

Ancient religions also played a prominent role in the early Hausa communities. Each family
group worshiped or practiced a particular spirit called 'Iskoki' or in singular for 'iska'. There was
also the practice of totemism ie the belief that some animals have spiritual connections with a
particular family group and that killing such animals brings misfortune to such family groups.
Such animals, among the early Hausa, were called 'Kangida' ie 'the Head of the House'. The
Hausa believed in the supreme Being known as Ubangiji ie literally meaning "father of the home
they approached home through the priests - the Maguzawa or Bori cult members.

The introduction of the use of iron into Hausaland around the early part of the first millennium
A.D contributed to the growth of larger settlements as opposed to the hamlets described above.
These 'gan' (villages) were either centers for the production of goods or trading/commercial
centers. In these villages, the general political authority was exercised by the Sarkin Gari,
assisted by Ward heads (Masunguwa) (Please note that singular is Mai Unguwa te ward head)

The above represent the general description of the socio-economic and political characteristics
of early Hausa communities. This era preceded the emergence of the state system in
Hausaland characterized by a centralized system of government, and in which its authority was
based on control of large territory.
The Emergence Of The Hausa States In The Birane Era

The origin of the state system in Hausaland is well preserved in oral traditions. particularly
those of the Kano chronicles. According to the Kano chronicles, Bayajida or Abuyazidu, son of
the king of Baghdad, quarreled with his father, Abdullahi and fled until he reached Bornu where
he got married to one of the Mai's daughters. Afterward, the Mai planned to kill him due to his
growing popularity. On knowing this plan, Bayagida fled Bornu and arrived in Daura where he
killed a sample which had long prevented them from drawing water from the only well in the
village. The Queen of Daura was so pleased with this man's courage and bravery that she got
married to Bayajidda.

The marriage between Bayajidda and the Queen of Daura resulted in a son called Bawogari
meaning Town Builder/Founder, Bawogari himself had six children (three sets of twins) who
became the founders of six Hausa states: Kano and Daura, Gobir and Zazzau (Zegzeg or Zaria)
and Katsina and Ramp respectively. Along with Biram ( begotten Princess of Bornu), these
seven children of Bayajidda were called Hausa Bakwal Le Seven Legitimate Hausa States,
Bayajidda also had a Gwari concubine of who also bore him another son called Karbogari le
Town Seizer who gave birth to seven children who were called 'Hausa Banza' or 'Bastard states
and they include Zamfara Kebbi, Nupe, Gwari, Yaurt, Kwararafa and tlorin. All the 14 Hausa
states were well organized and they had strong centralized system of political administration
which was greatly influenced by the introduction of Islam into Hausaland. It must be noted that
the founders of the 14 Hausa states had their personal names different from the names of
towns which they founded as recorded in the Bayajida legends. For instance, the founder of
Kano was Bagauda, that of Katsina was Kumayo, that of Kebbi was Kanta, that of Zaria was
Gunguma etc.

The Hausa were originally animists, pagan, or idol worshippers. However, between the 12th and
13th centuries, Islam was introduced into the Hausaland by the Wangara traders, missionaries
and scholars from Mali through the Trans-Sahara trade routes. The religion entrenched in
Hausaland in the 14th century when Sheikh Muhammad Abdul Kareem Al-Maghili, the famous
Algerian scholar, introduced Islam to Kano during the reign of Sarkin Yaji Ali of Kano [1347-1385]
who embraced Islam and many of his subjects. In addition, Al-Maghili cut down the tree being
worshipped in the king's palace and built a mosque in its place. It must be noted that Islam was
introduced to the various Hausa states at different times. The religion of Islam has had a great
impact on the socio-ecomomic and political organization of the Hausa states since the 14th
century.
It is important to state that the different Hausa states either from the Hausa Bakwai or Hausa
Banza have the details of their specific traditions of origin drawn from the larger Bayajida
legend. It is sufficed to conclude that the the founders of the seven original Hausa states (ie
Hausa Bakwal) were assigned specific duties and offices in the Hausa oral history. For instance,
Gobir was appointed Sarkin Yaki (War Leader of Commander in ChiefChief of the Army); Daura
was Sarkin Noma (Head of Farming): Katsina was Sarkin Kasuwa (Chief of Market/Director of
Trade or Commerce), Kano and Ramp were Sarakunan Baba (Chiefs of Indigo/Superintendents
of the Indigo Industry); and Zaria was Sarkin Bayi (Chief of Slaves/Procurer of Labour); Biram
reputedly the original seat of government of Hausa states is usually glossed over in this
tradition of duty allocations but some scholars have referred to it as Sarkin Hukuma (Chief of
Governance).

Conclusion

From the foregoing, we can conclude that the Hausa are a major ethnic nationality in modern
Nigeria. The term Hausa applies more to the language than to the people and the Hausa
language is the most widely-spoken language in Northern Nigeria. The history of Hausa is
divided into pre-Birni era and Birane era. The Hausa societies predated the emergence of
Bayajida/Abuyazidu from the East around the 11th and 12th centuries. Before the introduction
of Islam, traditional religions played a major role in Hausa social and political activities. The
introduction of Islam in the 13th and 14th centuries provided a common ideology for Hausa
states and aided educational, economic and political activities of the Hausa people.
Topic 1: Nigeria' and 'Nigerian History: Mere Terms or Realities?

The concept of "Nigeria" and "Nigerian History are two sides of a coin. In fact, one leads to the
other. The two concepts are both legacies of colonial rule in Nigeria, Etymologically, the word
"Nigeria' is coined from the two words Niger and Area' It was used to describe the area around
the River Niger by the colonial writers and reporters. The word "Nigeria' was "first" used by Lady
Flora Shaw, a Correspondent of the London Times in a newspaper report on January 8, 1897
and was adopted as the name of the country in 1900 when colonial rule was formally
established, it has, however, been argued that the word 'Nigeria' had been used in 1859-1860 by
William Cole in his journal of an African Timber Trader or life in the Niger and that it was
Saunders Orley and Co of London who first gave press publication in 1862 to the word "Nigeria"

The process leading to the birth of Nigeria could be traced to era of legitimate trade in
agricultural goods which followed the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade. The Royal Niger
Company under Sir George Tubman Goldie claimed a great part of the present day Nigeria for
Britain and the establishment of British colonial rule in Nigeria as formally endorsed at the
1884/1885 Berlin West African Conference. The year 1900 was particularly significant in the
stages of the evolution of the Nigerian state for three reasons:

1. It was in that year that the Protectorite of Northem Nigeria was proclaimed with Sir Frederick
Lugard as High Commissioner

2. It was in that year that the Niger Coast Protectorate which covered the Central and Eastern of
what later became Southern Nigeria became the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria with Sir Ralph
Moor as High Commissioner.

3. the Colony of Lagos and its Protectorate (the whole of Yorubaland) remained under Governor
William McGregor

In 1906, Lagos Colony and its Protectorate was merged with the Protectorate of Southern
Nigeria to form the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria under Sir Walter Egerton as
Governor. in 1914, there was the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern Protectorates of
Nigeria with Sir (Lord) Frederick Lugard as the Governor General. This was the formal birth of
Nigeria and the origin of the concept of Nigeria. Therefore we can say that the creation of
Nigeria was a deliberate creation of the British in order to achieve economic and political
benefits by incorporating the Nigerian economy into the periphery of the international capitalist
system. In order to achieve this, the various Nigerian peoples numbering more than 250 were
brought together under a single political entis called Nigeria, These ethnic nationalities have
different historical, geographical, political, religious and socio- cconomic differences.

Between 1900 and 1960, these peoples were carefully and forcefully governed together by the
British through divide and rule tactics. In 1960, the county was granted independetice after
about forty years of nationalist struggles by Herbert Macaulay. Obafemi Awolowo, Nnandi
Azkiwe, Ahmadu Bello, etc. The attainment of independence exposed the irregularities and
imperfections in the conception and birth of Nigeria and the country began to face serious
problems of national integration and unity. These problems manifested themselves in political
crises, census palaver, inter-ethnic clashes, religious upheavals, civil wars and so on. Up till date,
the country is stili facing several problems of national integration.

Based on this, what do we call Nigeria a state, a nation or a nation state?, Below are excerpts
from some of the founding fathers of Nigeria:

Awolowo: Nigeria is not a nation, it is a mere geugraphical expression. There are no "Nigerians"
in the same sense as there are "English Welsh' or 'French" The ward Nigeria' is merely a
distinctive appellation to distinguish itese who live within the boundaries of Nigeria trom those
who do not.

Balewa: Since the amalgamation of Southern and Northern Provinces in 1914, Nigeria has
existed only on paper, it is far from being united, Nigerian unity is only a British intention for the
country as one country

Ojukwu: Nigeria never was and can never he a united country. power groups, goaded by
sectional rather than national interests, The very nature of Nigeria gave rise to political

Nigerian History

History of the various peoples who occupy the area called Nigeria like Hausa, Fulani, Igbo,
Yoruba, Edo, Efik, etc

History of all that happened within the era now referred to as Nigeria

Earliest Times to 500AD-Early History of Nigeria

800-1500-Arab Contacts Trans-Saharan Era in Nigerian History

1500-1807: European Trans-Atlantic Trade Era

1807-1900: Era of Legitimate Trade with the Europeans

1900-1914: The Making of Modern Nigeria/Amalgamations

1914 1960: The Colonial Period

960-1966: The First Republic

1967-1970: The Era of Civil War

1970-1979: The Post-Civil War Era/Era of Reconstruction

1979-1983 The Second Republic

1966-1999. The Era of Military Rule (1991-1993: The Botched Third Republic)

1993-1998: The Abacha Dark Era

1998-1999: The Era of Reforms and Transitions to the Fourth Republic (Abdul Salami Abubakar)

1999-Date: The Fourth Republic Contemporary Period

From the foregoing when can we say Nigeria started? When was Nigeria born? Can we have
Nigerian history before 1914? These and more questions are begging for answers from Nigerian
Historians.
Topie 2: The Diverse Nature of the Nigeria Nation

Introduction

Nigeria is a country of great diversity Modern Nigeria which is Africa's most populous country
and one of its largest countries has between 250 and 400 ethnic nationalities spread across its
36 states and 774 local government areas. The Nigerian diversity ated neeable to the origin of
the country itself. The Nigerian state as is currently constituted was created by the British
colonial government by forcefully bringing the various peoples occupying the region together
irrespective of their different history, culture, religion, language and other specificities. The
diversity of Nigeria can be gleaned from the following indices:

• Ethnic Diversity: Nigeria is made up of different ethnic nationalities numbering more than 400.
These people occupy different regions of the country. For instance, in the far North, we have the
Hausa, Fulani, Kamuri and other minority ethnic groups. In the Middle Belt of the country, we
have the Nupe, Tiv, Igala, Ebira, Jukun and several other ethnic groups. The Igbo, Edo, Efik. Ibibio,
Urhobo, Itshekiri, ljo, and other numerous peoples are located in the South-eastern and South-
southern parts of Nigeria. The Yoruba and its numerous sub-groups like the Oyo, ljebu, Egba,
ljesa, Egun, Awori, Igbomina, Ikale, laje, etc are found in the South-western part of Nigeria

Religious Diversity: The peoples of Nigeria also believe in different pantheons of gods. A good
number of them profess Islam and Christianity which were imported into the country by the
Arabs and Europeans in the 9th and 19th centuries respectively. The religious distribution of
Nigeria was greatly determined by the geographical locations of the different peoples of the
country and the aren of incursions of the missiottary. For instance, most people in the far-North
of Nigeria and the Middle Belt are Muslims because the Muslim missionaries from North Africa
penetrated Nigeria from the Sahara desert from the North of Nigeria. The same thing most
people in the South-eastern and South-southern parts of Nigeria are Christians because the
European Christian missionaries came to the country through the Southern coasts of Nigeria.
The Yoruba of South-westem part of Nigeria have a considerable number of Muslims bud
Christians because they had early commercial relations with the peoples of Northern Nigeria
and also phayed hosts to early European Christian missionaries from the Lagos ports.
Adherents of African Traditional Religions (ATRS) are also prominent among many Nigerian
peoples.
Cuitaral Diversity: The peoples of Nigeria have different cultural backgrounds. Their ways of
dressing, food, marriage, naming, festivals, ete vary from one people to the other.

Language/Linguistic Diversity: There are as many languages and dialects in Nigeria as there are
many ethnic groups in the country, in fact, many Nigeria ethnic groups are known by the names
of their languages. For instances, the Hausa speak the Hausa language, the Yoruba speak the
Yoruba language while the Igbo speak the Igbo language. There are however, some Nigerian
groups who are not known with their language name. Good examples in this regard are the
Fulani who speak the Fulfulde. These languages are mutually intelligible to people who speak
them but are there also sub groups who speak dialects of a major group's language. For
instance, the Yoruba speak a general Yoruba language intelligible to all Yoruba groups but a
number of Yoruba sub-groups have dialects which may not be intelligible to other Yoruba sub-
groups. Examples include the Ijesa, Ijebu and Egba dialects.

•Political Diversity: There (were) are different types of traditional political systems annoing the
various ethnic groups of Nised byonensuce among the Hausa Fulant of the North, there (was) is
absolute Islamic monarchy headed by the heirs and their subordinates in the constituent
districts. The Yoruba bal (still have) constitutional monarchical system under the king (Oba) in
the large towns and kingdoms and the village heads (Baale) in the smaller villages and suburbs.
The igbos and other smaller units in Southern Nigeria did not have paramount heads
comparable to an Oba or Emir until the colonial periods and post colonial eras. They were
organized in small clans and lineages under the leadership of the elders and the largest political
units were the village councils, Some igbo communities now have Igwe, Eze and Obi as a result
of modern exigencies and external influences. These diverse political systems were suited to
the different peoples in the pre-colonial periods and some of them were used by the colonial
government in its Indirect Rule system. However, most of them have gone through
modifications and modernizations since the colonial period.

Resource Diversity: The territorial extent of Nigeria is blessed with a lot of natural and
agricultural resources in the different parts of the country. The topography of Nigeria ranges
from lowlands along the coast and in the lower Niger Valley to high plateaus in the north and
mountains along the eastern border. Much of the country is laced with productive rivers Niger,
Benue, Ogun, Osun, Kaduna, Gongola, Yobe, etc. The Nigerian ecology varies from tropical forest
in the south to dry savanna in the far north, yielding a diverse mix of plant and animal life. In the
Nigerian hinterland, the vegetation gives way to tropical forest, with its many species of tropical
hardwoods, including mahogany, iroko, and obeche and several others in different areas of the
country. Big and small games are abundant in Nigeria such as elephants, buffalo, lions, leopards,
antelope, monkeys, jackals, hyenas etc while sea animals like hippopotamuses, crocodiles and
other aquatic animals are still common in the large rivers. Birds of various species are also
abundant in the country. Some of the major natural resources of the country are petroleum and
natural gas which are the sources of most Nigerian foreign earnings. Other natural resources
include gold, coal, iron ore, lignite, columbite, tin limestone, etc. Some of Nigeria's major
agricultural goods are cocon, rubber, cotton, groundnut, palms (export commodities) and yam,
sorghum, cassava, maize, millet, etc (food crops). Nigeria is blessed in its Niger Delta region
with crude oil which is the main source of revenues for the government in modern times.

Economic/Occupational Diversity: Almost all Nigerians are farmers and traders, but what they
plant and trade in, are determined by their environment. For instance, coastal peoples of
Southern Nigeria are traditionally made to be fishermen, canoe builders and vegetable planters
while the savannah people are naturally cereal planters and traders, pastoralists/nomads as
well as producers of crafts like leather bags, shoes, etc from their animals' skins.

• Educational Diversity: An aspect of Nigerian diversity which has been greatly neglected is
educational diversity. In the pre-colonial period, the Hausa, Fulani, Kanuri, Nupe and other ethnic
nationalities in Northern Nigeria had a well-developed Arabic and Islamic educational system
with different levels and curricula. In fact, it was the first formal educational system in Nigeria
obtained at Madrasah/Markaz (Arabic schools/centres) which predated formal Western
education. During the colonial period, the government of Lugard was so impressed by the
Islamic education in the North that he prevented Western education championed by the
European Christian missionaries from being introduced into the North for several decades. This
explains the current Western educational advantage/advancement of the South over the North.
Also, among the Yoruba of Western Nigeria, there were aspects of informal educational
systems like Ifa corpus training, apprenticeship of various types and so on. Several pre- colonial
educational practices existed among different ethnic groups in Nigeria. In spite of the
imposition of colonial rule and fonnalization of Western education, Islamic education and other
forms of pre-colonial systems of education still thrive in different parts of Nigeria.

Geographical Diversity

Nigeria has a land mass of 923,768 sq. km., with 910,770 sq. km of that being land area and a
coast line of 853 km. The area referred to as Nigeria lies between latitudes 4-N and 14 N.
Nigeria shares common boundaries with the Sahara Desert and the Republic of Niger to the
Northwest, Republic of Benin to the West: Republic of Chad to the Northeast, and the Republic
of Cameroon to the East. The five major topographical divisions of Nigeria are: low costal zone
of the Gulf of Guinea, succeeded northward by hills and low plateaus; Niger-Benue river valley,
broad stepped plateau stretching to northern border with highest elevations over 1200 metres,
mountainous zone along eastern border, which includes country's highest point (2.042 meters)
Climate Tropical with variations governed by interaction of molt southwest monsoon and dry
northeast winds. Mean maximum temperatures of 30-32°C (south), 33-35 (north). High humidity
in the South February-November, June-September in the North; low humidity during dry season.
Annual rainfall decreases northward; about 2,000 millimeters in coastal zones (Niger Delta
averages over 3,550 millimetres): 500 to 750 millimetres in north.

The broad, mostly level valleys of the Niger and Benue rivers form Nigeria's largest physical
region. There are other minor rivers such as Osun, Ogun, Ose, Kaduna, Sokoto, Yobe, Gongola,
Ethiope, Katsina Ala, etc. The peoples of Nigeria are located in different geographical areas
within the country-savannah desert, forest, coastal regions ete. These diverse locations and
settlements of Nigerian peoples have a great impact on their occupations and means of
livelihood, temperament, exposures and so on. For instance, Savannah and desert peoples of
the far-North were exposed early to contacts from North Africa and the consequent
participation in the trans-Saheran trade and introduction of Islam and Islamic education, while
the coastal peoples had early contacts with the Europeans, introduction of Christianity and
Western education.

The influence of geographical environment on the historical development of the Nigerian

peoples cannot be over-emphasized. Geographical factors of physical landscape, location,
volume or amount of rainfall. topography, climate, vegetations and distribution of resources,
among others played a great role in the making of people's history. The geographical factors of
climate, topography, rainfall, temperature and so on played a great role on the environmental
peculiarities of the different parts of Nigeria. These environmental conditions in turn influenced
the social ways of life of the various Nigerian peoples that occupy the different parts of the
country. In terms of its vegetations, the Nigeria environment is broadly classified into three:
These are the grassland region, the forest region and coastal zone. The people who occupy
these different regions have exhibited different ways of life, be it political, economic and social.
The impact of the diversity of Nigeria on its politics and government has been very profound.

It was in a bid to mitigate the negative impact of these diversities on Nigerian politics and
economy that successive governments in Nigeria since independence have been promoting the
concept of "Unity in Diversity".
Further Reading options

1 development of the Nigerian

Helen Chapin Metz, Nigeria: A A Country Study (Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division
Library of Congress, 1991) shaury The goog rantall

J.S. Coleman, Nigeria: Background to Nationalism (Berkeley: University of California Press,

1958).

O. Arikpo, The Development of Modern Nigeria (London: Penguin Books, 1967), cavipmarwane
prostit

Crowder, M., The Story of Nigeria (London: Faber and Faber, 1962)

andemment has been very profound.

TOPIC: Early History of the Yoruba and State Formation Process

Introduction

It is appropriate to begin this topic with a message from P.C. Lloyd, a historian of Nigerian
history and culture, Who affirms that "A knowledge of the Yoruba past must be gleaned from
myths, legends, folktales, praise-songs and the like, all of which are rapidly being forgotten by all
the younger generation". This is exactly what we intend to do in this topic ie understanding the
traditions of origin, early history and the process of state formation in Yorubaland before 1500,

The Yoruba are one of the most prominent ethic nationalities on earth surface. The Yoruba are
people of intelligence, ingenuity, artistry and skill. Describing the physical appearance of the
Yoruba, Leo Frobenius, a German scholar who visited Ile-Ife between 1910 and 1912 says:
"Yoruba men are of fine stature, extra ordinary slenderness and delicacy of limbs, narrow heads
and fairer skins, and those of the lower classes possess the usual Negro characteristics",
Traditionally, the Yoruba occupy an extensive territory, embracing the whole of modern
Southwestern Nigeria and adjacent areas of Dahomey of Benin) and Togo. In other words, the
Yoruba country which Professor Wande Abimbola once called "The Yoruba Cultural Empire,"
spreads a vast territory westwards from the present Edo state of Nigeria, across the Republic of
Benin and Togo, Large concentrations of the Yoruba are also found in such-like places as Sierra
Leone, Côte D'ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Mali, Burkina Faso and across the Atlantic, as far as the
Caribbean, and the Americas especially in Brazil. Cued and even Argentina.

Worldwide it is estimated that the Yoruba have a population of over sixty million people. The
Yoruba comprise a number of sub-ethnic groups. In Nigeria, these include the Ife, Oyo, Ibarapa,
ljesa, Igbomina, Egba, Egbado (Yewa), Awori, Egun, Ijebu, Ekiti, Ilaje, Okale, Owo, Akoko, Ondo,
Yagba, Bunu, Owe, etc. In Benin Republic and Togo, we have the Isa, Idaisa, Ajase, Ketu, Sabe
and "Anago" as the major Yoruba sub-ethnic groups. In Brazil and Cuba, the major Yoruba sub-
groups are known as Nago and Lucumi respectively. The Yoruba speak a standard Yoruba
language that is mutually intelligible to all the sub-groups. This is despite the fact that the
Yoruba language has many dialectal variants peculiar to the various Yoruba sub-groups. The
use of the name 'Yoruba' to refer to the whole group is a recent development, which does not
pre-date the nineteenth century. Originally, this name referred only to one of the "Yoruba"
kingdoms - old Oyo Kingdom. In earlier times, it does not appear that the various "Yoruba-
speaking' peoples called themselves by any common name. The earliest Instance of the use of
the name "Yoruba' in its modern general sense appears to be J. Raban, A Vocabulary of the Eyo,
or Aku, A Dialect of Western Africa, II (London, 1832). They did, however, acknowledge a
common origin, from the Yoruba town of lle-Ife.

The historical consciousness of the Yoruba started at lle-Ife, the cradle of the Yoruba race and
civilization. The Yoruba claim descent from Oduduwa, a deified personality and the acclaimed
progenitor of the Yoruba people. Based on linguistic evidence, it is now clear that the Yoruba
emerged as a distinct language group from the Kwa group between about 2.000 BC and 1,000
BC from the Niger-Benue confluence area. Ile-Ife was obviously the first Yoruba settlement to
become prominent soon after the people acquired distinctiveness and self-awareness as a
separate language group. Thus, oral traditions point to lle-Ife as the spiritual and ancestral home
of the Yoruba, From Ile-Ife, they dispersed into different directions led by the siblings of
Oduduwa to found new kingdoms, which more or less constitute the present Yoruba sub-groups.

Traditions of Origin of the Yoruba

The accounts of origin of the Yoruba are contained in traditions. These traditions are divided
into two-the creationist myths and migrationist stories. One of the creationist myths of Yoruba
origin is contained in Ikedu tradition described by Late Professor I. A. Akinjogbin as "an ancient
school for teaching Ife history to the initiates". According to the Ikedu, ancient Ife existed from
the beginning of the world; it relates how the Supreme Intelligence called Orisanobu Oghene
sent his servant named Oko, accompanied by a large retinue, into the world to found a home for
the human race. The group initially occupied a small island which they named Oooyelagbo. Then
the population increased and the leader, Oko, implored Orisanobu Oghene for more land. He
consented, and on his orders, the waters receded, dry land expanded and Oko called this place
lle-Ife.

Another creationist story has it that a lone hunter on earth named Ore pleaded with the Supreme
Being to help him in solving the problem of the world that's full of water. God then sent
Oduduwa at the head of a large group of celestial beings and provisioned them with lumps of
earth containing seeds. This group landed on the primeval flood, created and occupied the land.
In a similar myth, the leader of the group commissioned by God was Obatala, with Oduduwa as
one of his lieutenants. The leader, Obatala, drank palm wine along the way and got himself tipsy,
whereupon Oduduwa superseded him in the leadership, led the group to and occupied Oke
Oramfe i.e. Oramfe Hill. The myth is summed up in this illustration: God lowers a chain to lle-Ife

Which let down Oduduwa Bringing with him: a chicken, some earth, a palm kernel The Earth was
thrown into the water The chicken scratched it to become land The kernel grew into a tree with
sixteen limbs The limbs are representing the original sixteen Yoruba kingdoms
According to the creationist theory, lle-Ife was the nucleus of the whole world and the place
where the universe began. In the Yoruba literature, Ile-Ife is:

lle-ife, Ile Owuro, lle-ife Oodaye, nibiti ojumo ti n mo wa, lle-Ife ori aye gbogbo Meaning: Ile-Ife,
the land of the most ancient days-the dawn. Ile-Ife where the work of creation took place, where
the dawn of the day was first experienced, lle-Ife the head or nucleus of the whole universe.

In the area of migration, it is said that Oduduwa led a group of migrants from somewhere in the
East, variously given as Mecca, or Egypt as a result of religious conflicts with his father
Lamurudu. The migrants wandered for several years until they got to lle-Ife and met
Agbonniregun/Orunmila, Obatala, Obawinrin and other people already settled in the five pre-
Oduduwa quarters and thirteen groups of villages in lle-Ife. Significantly, Oduduwa succeeded in
bringing the existing 13 village communities together. These were Ido, Iloromu. Ideta Oko, Odun,
Iloran, Oke Oja. Imojubi, Iraye, Ijugbe, Oke Awo, Iwinrin, Parakin and Omologun. The tradition
continues that Oduduwa had one son who in turn gave birth to seven children namely, Olowu of
Owu, Orangun of lla. Onipopo of Popo, Onisabe of Sabe, Alaketu of Ketu, Oba of Benin and
Oranmiyan of Oyo. At a point in the history of Ile-ife, popularly called the Dispersal Period, all the
children of Oduduwa were asked by their father to disperse and found kingdoms of their own.
The point at which this decision was taken is known as Ita ljero in lle-Ife.

What is academically established in Yoruba history is that Ile-Ife was the cradle of the people.
Sccond, there were people in lie-Ife before the coming of Oduduwa. It is also established that
Oduduwa came from somewhere outside lle-Ife. Ade Obayemi has argued that Oduduwa did not
come from anywhere in Mecca but that he came from the Niger-Benue Confluence region. His
words:

Yoruba genesis could not have been as a result of an exodus from the Middle East...If any
Eastern origin is to be asserted for the Yoruba, East must refer to the Niger Benue Confluence
area rather than to Egypt or Yemen.

Furthermore, Oduduwa was the first generally acknowledged leader of the Yoruba people. He
was able to make himself the leader of the people through force and diplomacy and established
a monarchy over the hitherto existing Ife confederacy.
The Position of Ife in Yoruba Traditions

To the Yoruba, Ile-ife is the source, the first of creation, the palce from which the day dawns, the
enchanted holy city, the of divinities and mysterious spirits. Ife is the earthly origin and fountain
of all. It is also the earthly end to which all must return in order to be told what to do next. It is
the origin and center not only of the Yoruba race but also of the whole world and all its people.
The position of lie-ife as the acknowledged cradle of all the royal dynasties of all the Yoruba
kingdoms would seem to imply a special, paramount status for the Coni of Ife, the occupant of
the ancestral throne. This was certainly the view of the Ooni themselves. According to Ife
traditions. Oduduwa, shortly before his death, bestowed crowns on his sons, he first crowned
his eldest son as Ooni of Ife, and ordered his other sons, the founders of the other kingdoms, to
show fillal obedience to their eldest brother in consequence, the Coni is still regarded by his
younger brothers as their father'. This conception of the Coni of Ife wielding an acknowledged
paternal authority over the family of derivative dynasties has become popular in recent years
through its adoption by Late Professor Akinjogbin, who has christened this conception of the
state as a large family in his 'ebi social theory'. It is possible that the Ooni of Ife enjoyed such a
position of acknowledged Paramountcy in very early times.

In recent times, however, the Ooni's claim to 'paternal status and authority has been widely
repudiated by the rulers of the derivative kingdoms. For example, when Aderemi himself, on a
visit to the Ekiti area in 1936, told the local kings, 'I am on the throne as the father, and you are
on thrones as sons', the Ekiti kings replied that, just as the Ooni was on the throne of his father,
so also they were on the thrones of their fathers. Certain traditions relating to the ancestry of
the Ooni of Ife appear to have been devised specifically in order to counter the Ooni's very
plausible claim to paramount status. One tradition asserts that the Ooni is descended not from
any of Oduduwa's children by his principal wife, Omonide, but from one of his sons by his other
wives, who on Oduduwa's death was given a broom to keep his grave clean

A much more common story denies altogether the royal ancestry of the Ooni, describing the
first Ooni as a slave. Versions of this story are reported, for example, from Oyo, Ilesa, and Ijebu.
Usually, the first Ooni is said to have been a slave of Oduduwa's household, oficen described as
the son of a woman offered in sacrifice, who was left to look after the palace an lle Ife when
Oduduwa's sons dispersed to found their own kingdoms. Another version asserts that when the
first king of Ile-Ife died, an oracle advised the elders to choose as his successor the first man
they should meet with, who turned out to be a slave who had just escaped being made a
sacrifice. These stories are regularly supported by the claim that the title Ooni is derived from
"Omo Oluwa ni" or "Oluwo ni" ie "He is the son of a sacrifice' or 'He is a sacrifice. This denial of
true royal ancestry to the Ooni of Ife offered an opportunity for other kings to claim for
themselves primacy of status among the descendants of Oduduwa. It appears that such claims
were put forward by the Alaketu of Ketu and by the Owa of llesa, the principal ljesa king.

The Place and Role of Oduduwa/Olofin in Yoruba History

Evidence from the Ikedu traditions, as analyzed by Akinjogbin, reveals that Oduduwa seized
power from Obatala sometime between the 8th and 10th centuries AD Oduduwa thereafter
founded an enduring dynasty, provided dynamic leadership and revitalized the Ife kingdom. In
fact, his career revolutionized political developments in Yorubaland because emergent
centralized states in Yorubaland took a cue from Ife and developed in many parts of Yorubaland,
Prominent among these were Owu, Ketu, Ijesha, Ekiti, Owo, Ondo and Oyo Kingdoms. The all-
embracing and pervasive influence of Oduduwa over these kingdoms especially at their
formative stages secured for Oduduwa his unparalleled reputation in Yoruba history and
historiography as their progenitor worldwide.

The place and contributions of Oduduwa to Yoruba history can be summed up in the following
areas:

1. He became victorious in the civil wars among the people of lle-Ife and Obatala lost the Are
Crown, the oldest symbol of political authority in the confederacy to Oduduwa, the leader of the
new migrants.

2. He is regarded as the father of the Yoruba being the generally acknowledged ancestor of the
people.

3. Oduduwa brought all the villages together into one compact town around the Aafin.

4. He made beaded crowns symbol of royalty in Yorubaland. He gave beaded crown to all
dispersing princes from Ile-Ife.

5. He was reputed to be the founder of Afin i.e. palace at Idio which became the nerve center of
social, political and economic activities after Oduduwa had become the victor in the civil wars.

6. He initiated and supervised the dispersal of Yoruba princes to found other Yoruba kingdoms
during the dispersal period. This decision took place in a place called Ita Ijero - Place of
deliberations in lle ife.
Topic: The Emergence of the Edo and the Growth of the Benin Kingdom

Introduction

The Benin kingdom was a vast one and it was located in the forest belt of the modern Southern
Nigeria. At the peak of is power, the empire congraced the Edo-speaking people or the Benin
propof and a large torritory of the non-Edo speaking population in Esan/Ishan/Eshan, Kukuruku,
Orra. Akoko. Isoko, Urhobo, Ekiti, Ilaje, Awori, Itshekiri, Ijo, Oru, Eka and Igbon. The word
language and even the poople (The Edo). The name originates/dates back to Oranmiyan era
(grandson of Oduduwa) in Benin when he faced opposition from the people and described the
place in Yoruba parlance as lle /binu - The land or vexation. The Yoruba phrase Ile-ibinu was
converted to Ubini by Oba Ewedo and the Europeans later converted it to Benin in their own
records.

Traditions of Origin of the Benin People (Edo)

There are various traditions of origin of the Benin kingdom. According to Jacab Egharevba, the
Edo people of Benin came from Egypt. This tradition says further that the people halted in the
Sudan before they arrived at the present site. Another tradition which is mythical says that the
Benin people were the descendants of the youngest son of the Supreme Being Osanobua. The
son of the Supreme Being is said to have come down from heaven with a snail and some sand
which he spread on an area of water This gave him the piece of land he required which is now
Benin. Another version says that the Edo were descendants of Idu who is believed to be the son
of Iso (sky). Iso himself is said to be the son of Oghene (God). Idu is said to have lived at a place
called Uhe (Ife) with his brother Olukumi but had been expelled. Idu thereafter proceeded to a
"land of peace and tranquility which in Idu language is Ubini. This Ubini is described as a "fertile
and open land between or amidst flowing water" Whatever is the mythical and migratory
account of Benin origin, some archacologists have suggested that the ancestors of Benin
people migrated from the Sahara Desert region during the desiccation period which resulted in
the scattering of its inhabitants.

The First Dynasty-Ogiso Era (c. 40 BC-16 CE) The early political history of Benin is traced to the
rule of one Igodo who founded Ogiso dynasty (son of the sky) in about 40 BC. This is why the
people of Benin were known as Igodomigodo i.e. land or children of Igodo. The Ogiso recorded
about 15 Ogiso including some women rulers, but some scholars hold that there were 30 of
them. Benin traditions left us with some names of Ogiso rulers who made remarkable
contributions to the evolution of the Benin kingdom: Igodo or Obagado, Ere, Orir), Odia), Ighido,
Emehe, Ororo, Akhuankhuan, Ekpigho, Oria, Emose, Orhorho (Woman), Oriagba, Odoligle, Uwa,
Hennenden,., Obiyoe, Arigho. Owodo, Evian (Republican Ruler), Ogiamwen (Republic Ruler), etc

Ogiso Igodo is reputed to be the founder of the kingdom. He united the various communities
around Benin under his rule and he established the Benin monarchical system and the Ogiso
dynasty. He established his capital at a place called Ugbekun. Ogiso Ere (c. 16 AD- 66 AD) who
succeeded Ogiso was the greatest of all the Ogiso. His many contributions to the kingdom
include: transfer of the capital of Igodomigodo from Ugbekun to Uhudumwunrun; introduction of
Cowry Crown: introduction of the guild system of carpenters and wood carvers; which eventually
developed into the world's celebrated wood works and bronze casting factories of today's gun
street in Benin City: building of the first ever Igodomigodo market known then as Ogiso market
and in modern times as Agbado market in Benin; invention of the famous African kingship
paraphernalia which includes the Ada (a sword of honour). Eben (a sword for dancing). | Ekete
(a royal stool), Agba (a rectangular stool) and Epoki (a leather box). These still serve today as
the symbols of Obaship authority in many Nigerian kingdoms that experienced Benin control
and/or influence, the creation of the Ughoron - a class of royal singers and recorders of events,
the creation of the Edionosen - the five elders of the kingdom, a body that was later to become a
founding nucleus of the Uzama; etc. The last Ogiso was Owodo an incompetent ruler who
clashed with the nobles and was banished. A period of struggle for the throne among the chicks
took place during the interregnum. Evian and his successor Ogiamwen who attempted to. rule
during this period were rejected because they were not from the Ogiso dynasty.

The period of Ogiso rule is important in Benin history. The unification of the Benin people into a
kingdom; the establishment of the Benin monarchical system which has survived till the present
day; the creation of the Benin chieftaincy system; the formation of crafts guilds and the revival
of the Ughoron, the official recorders of the Benin history, are permanent achievements which
are credited to the Ogisa.

The Sccond Dynasty- The Eweka/Oranmiyan/Oduduwa/lfe/Oba Dynasty According to one

tradition which traces the origin of the post-Ogiso dynasty of kings to le-Ife, as republican rule
proved unsatisfactory, the nobles appealed to the Ooni of Ife for a ruler. Consequently, Oduduwa
sent his grandson, Oranmiyan to rule over Benin. Oranmiyan found the task of ruling the Edo a
difficult one because of the factional war raging in the kingdom. He therefore called the
kingdom Ile Ibinu (the land of vexation) which was later corrupted to Ubini and lastly to Benin by
the Europeans. The tradition continues that Oranmiyan came to the conclusion that only a
prince of Edo blood could rule the people. So, on his way to Ife, he married Erimwinde, the
daughter of a Benin chief called Enogie of Egor. Oranmiyan left three of his chiefs behind to take
care of the pregnant princess. These three chiefs were thama, Letema and Legema. Erimwinde
gave birth to a son who was named Eweka. Oranmiyan is said to have returned to Yorubaland
where he founded the Oyo kingdom. Eweka was crowned Oba Ewekal about 1300 AD. The title
Eweka is said to have come from the Yoruba clause "Owo mi ka" meaning "I am capable"
suggesting that as Oranmiyan was incapable of administering Benin, Eweka was capable.

Oranmiyan was the first king of Oranmiyan/Ife/Eweka dynasty in Benin with the "Oba" This
dynasty has survived into modern times and has produced about 39 Oba of Benin- the present
Oba of Benin, Oba Erediauwa I being the 39 Oba of Eweka dynasty. Oba Eweka created the
office of the counciliors of the state called the Uzama. The Uzama who were seven in number
were the kingmakers whose duty it was to install a new Oba Their office was hereditary.

Eweka's other important achievement was the consolidation of his position as Oba. This he did
by appointing his son and his loyal courtiers as rulers in the districts of the kingdom. Other
prominent kings in the Eweka dynasty include Oba Ewedo, Oba Edoni, Oba Udagbedo, Oba
Ozolua, Oba Esigie, Oba Orhogbua, Oba Oguola, Oba Ewuare the Great and so on.

Oba Ewuare the Great (1440-1473) Ewuare was one of the greatest Oba of Benin, Under his
reign, the Benin kingdom reached its golden age. He came to power after a civil war had brought
much destruction to the city. During Ewuare's reign, the city was not only rebuilt but it also
became powerful and wealthy metropolis which attracted artists and experts in medicine and
religion, Some of the finest carvings and brass and bronze works of Benin date back to Ewuare's
reign. "Ewuare" which was the title he took on becoming the Oba, means literally "the trouble has
ceased" or "the cool" signaling his intention to bring peace and prosperity to the city. His
success in achieving this difficult goal earned him the suffix The Great". His real name was
Ogun.

Ewuare's success was founded on his ability to control the powerful chiefs of the Uzama
Nihiron. He did this by creating a new order of chiefs whose titles were not hereditary but who
were appointed instead by the Oba. These Town Chiefs (Eghaevbo n'Ore) were responsible for a
variety of administrative duties and there were appointed by the Oba and loyal to him. Their
injection into the state council greatly reduced the power of the overwhelming Uzama and the
Palace Chiefs (Eghaevbo n'Ogbe) as the Town Chiefs had a strong voice in determining state
policy. As a result of his palace reorganization, the palace became to be administered by three
associations of retainers namely Iwebo Iweguae and Ibiwe. The Iwebo were in charge of the
king's wardrobe, the Iweguae in charge of the household of the king while the Ibiwe were in
charge of the harem in the palace.

In order to reduce succession disputes, Ewuare instituted the principle of primogeniture: a new
title of Edaikhen, meaning heir-apparent, was created and was automatically conferred upon the
eldest son of the Oba. The Edaikhen was also made one of the Hereditary Uzama Chiefs. He is
reputed to have given the name Edo to Benin. He also Introduced the Igue festival during which
his mystical powers were celebrated. Having made his position more secure and stable at home,
he embarked upon a series of military campaign and conquered large area of Eastern
Yorubaland including the kingdoms of Owo. Akure, Ado-Ekiti, and others. He also conquered the
Igbo town and villages surrounding Benin

The rulers of these place conquered by Ewuare were forced to pay tributes to Benin. These
conquests gave Benin power and prestige and this was also reflected in the of the city with its
good road system, its skilled craftsmen and its mighty buildings, he laid the social foundation
that his successors continued to build upon for the greatness of the Benin kingdom in the
succeeding centuries. He was Succeeded by Oba Ozolua (1481-1504) during whose reign the
Portuguese first visited Benin.
The Igbo of Southeastern Nigeria, Earliest Times to 1500

Introduction

The Igbo people of Southeastern Nigeria represent the third major ethnic nationality in modern
Nigeria after the Hausa/Fulani and Yoruba of Northern and Western Nigeria respectively. The
principal homeland of the Igbo is Southeastern Nigeria which has been broken out to five
modern states of Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. The Igbo speak a mutually-intelligible
language that is understood by all Igbo groups in spite of existence of dialectal variants of Igbo
language. The Igbo language belongs to the Kwa, a sub-group of the Niger-Congo group of
African languages advanced by Joseph Greenberg. The Yoruba, Edo and Idoma languages also
belong to the Kwa which is said to have been in existence since about 6000 years B.C. The igbo
today are regarded as business-oriented, dynamic, progressive and 'materialistic'

Traditions of Origin of the Igbo

The Igbo, unlike the Yoruba, Hausa and the Edo, do not have a wealth of traditions of origin.
However, the existing accounts of Igbo origin are categorized into autochthonous accounts and
migratory accounts. In the autochthonous account, it is believed by the Igbo that their ancestors
did not migrate from anywhere and that they have been living where they now live from time
immemorial. The autochthonous origin of the Igbo is expressed by PA. Talbot in these words

The Ibo ....have no tradition of migration from elsewhere and appear to have settled in the
thickly populated parts of Nri-Awka and Isu-Ama areas of a very long period and to have spread
from there.

The autochthonous claims seem to have been supported by oral evidence and settlement
patterns which suggest that from about 1300 to 1400, the Igbo began to move south and east
from the region of Nri-Awka-Orlu (Isu-Ama) region. The Igbo traditions maintain that Nei-Awka-
Orlu region was the earliest settlements on which the Igbo made permanent settlements. As the
population swelled, the Igbo moved out in different directions from the original areas of
settlement. They moved to the eastern Isu-Ama area around Orlu, and from there parties of
migrants went to Abi, the Arochukwu ridge and other places. Emphasizing the place of Nri in
Igbo tradition, Barry Floyd writes:

Over the generations....one Igbo-speaking group, the Nri have been held in great respect
throughout Igboland. In the light of this, it has been suggested that the Ibo perhaps originated
from Nri or that their ancestors founded Nri several centuries ago.
Another scholar, S. Outtenberg argues that although systematic dialect analysis of Igbo are still
to be carried out, but the hypothesis has been advanced that the Ibo people expanded to the
north, north-east, west and south from a homeland in the neighborhood of Owerri-Umuahia".

In contrast, according to some Igbo groups, it is believed that Igbo ancestors migrated from the
east preferably Egypt or Israel. Reverend G.T. Basslen, while supporting the Jewish/ israeli
origin of the Igbo stresses:

The deep religious nature of the Igbo, their practice of circumcision and certain traits in their
language suggest a close similarity between their culture and some of the ideas and practices
of the Levitical code.

In the same vein, Anthropologist M.D.W. Jeffreys, in his own work, has suggested Egyptian
origin for the Igbo due to dual organization in Igbo social structure and by certain aspects of
Igbo religion

With the controversy surrounding the origin of the Igbo, the people regard the Nri-Awka-Orlu
region as the first region of Igbo settlement and the probable place of dispersal. Afigbo has also
argued that the antiquity of the Igbo dates back to more than 6000 years BC and this is
supported by linguistic evidence which suggests that the Kwa sub-group of Niger-Congo Africa
languages have been in existence since about 6000 BC.

Some Classification of Igbo Groups

WESTERN IGBO/BENIN IGBO

The Ika Igbo-Asaba, Agbor, Ogwashi Uku

Ogbaro-Igbos-Anambra and Delta States

Atani Igbo - Delta State

Ndosumili and Ndokwa-Igbo - DELTA

Kwale and Ukwani Igbo - Abor idumesa area

Isu-Igbo Isu Ibuzor area of Delta State

NON-BENIN IGBO/CORE IGBO

Nii-aWKA Igbo Agulen, Ndemiri, Oracri, Onitsha, Ogidi, Awka, Nnew etc

Aro Igbo, Arochukwu, Owerri, Okigwe

Ngwa Igbo: Aba Ngwa. Obioma-Ngwa, Isiala-Ngwa in Abia State

Owerri Igbo. Njemanze. Naze, Orji, Akwakuma, Nekede, Emekuku, Egbu, etc

Ogoja Igbo: Abakaliki people.

Abriba Igbo Ebomi, Abriba Bahamunu, Idi-lba, Usumuto, Igonigoni, Afafayin.

Ikwere Igbo: In Rivers State, Ogbanu Abale, Obi Igbo in Port Harcourt.

Isu Igbo/lsuama: Isu town, Isu-KWUATO, Isu Ofia, Isu Njaba, Isu-Nkwere, Isu-Buzor, eto.

Igbo Ukwu: Aro-Igbo, Nri-AWKA Igbo, Abriba-Igbo, Ikwere Igbo, etc.

Pre-Colonial Political and Social Organisation of the Igbo

The Igbo political organization has been variously as being acephalous, segmentary. clannish
and democratic. This is due to the fact that the traditional Igbo societies had no paramount
head comparable to those of Hausa/Fulani or Yoruba and it was based on a clan system with
elements of a direct democracy. The Igbo did not have a centralized system of government like
the Yoruba, Edo, Kauri and the Hausa/Fulani. They practicec a segmentary system of
government which had two levels of political organizations. These two levels of political
organization were that of the clan and that of the village. "The basic social unit among the Igbo
was the family groups which combined together form a lineage leading to the emergence of a
clan. The largest political unit of Igboland was the village. The village government consisted of
two basic institutions i.e. The Council of Elders called the Ama-Ala and the Village Assembly of
citizens. The highest moral sanctions lied with the lineage head called the Okpara who held an
Ofo title. All the title holders of Ofo in a village group were members of the Council of Elders
who were headed by the holder of the big Ofo title. The Council of Elders was not a legislative
body but it was only supposed to be re-affirming the wishes of the ancestors Conflicts between
individuals were settled by the lineage or clan heads while disputes involving different
segments/clans were settled by the Ama-Ala and the Village Assembly.

There were the various age grade groups which served as law enforcing agencies and
organizers of village labour force such as clearing foot-paths, construction of market stalls,
communal sanitation, security and so on. The Igbo political traditional system was 'democratic
as it allowed all adult individuals to have their say in village decisions through their participation
in the village council.

Factors of Unity among Igbo Groups in the Pre-colonial Period.

There was a relative unity among the different igbo groups before the emergence of colonialism
due to some socio-political factors. These factors include:

A. The Igbo lived in the same geographical area with little intergroup distance or barriers.

B. The igbo practiced exogamy system of marriage which encourages a man to seek a wife
from a village group other than his own. This resulted in an intricate mesh of personal
relationship among them.

C. The prevalence of markets was another factor that linked the Igbo together. The central
markets in all the villages were the focal points for all members of the village. Markets also
encouraged frequent contacts between one village group and another.
D. The Arochukwu Oracle (Ibinukpabi) commonly known as Long Juju by the Europeans
exercised a considerable influence over the whole of Igboland. It was a national shrine of the
igbo. It also became the symbol unity of the Igbo despite the segmentary system of Igbo
political organization.

E. The igbo share the same culture of kingship, cult system and social institutions.

F. There was serious loyalty among different categories of Igbo to their age groups,
associations and societies.

G. Because people of different lineages were living close together, the claims of a neighbor
began to rival, and then outstrip, those of a kinsman. The demands of kinship tended to threaten
the solidarity of the village where its defense needs were concerned, and the disruptive effect of
these obligations was damped down by giving certain lineages specified functions in the life of
the community, such as providing the chief, the war leader, the historians, the spokesman and
the priest. In this way leadership tended to develop into permanent authority. Permanent
authority, in its turn, when developed on any large scale, itself requires assistants and an
administrative class to help carry out its functions.

H. External factors like the influence of the Benin and Igala Kingdoms as well as the
transAtlantic slave trade played prominent roles in the transformation of Igbo societies alter the
15 century AD.
TOPIC: The Kanuri and the Emergence of Kanem.

The Kanem kingdom of our interest was located in an area now shared by five modern African
countries namely Chad, Nigeria, Southern Libya, Eastern Niger and Northern Cameroon. The
Kanem kingdom was located at the southern end of the trans-Saharan trade route between
Tripoli and the region of Lake Chad. The origins of the Kanem kingdom Empire are very unclear
but it is clear that the So (Sao) a negroid people were the earliest settlers in the region where the
Kanem kingdom was established? Later the Bulala and the Achawa, two nomadic Caucasoid
groups moved westwards from the desert region and settled with the So peoplo. This was as a
result of the continued desiccation of the Sahara Desert.

The intermarriage between the So and the Zaghawa resulted in the Kanuri who later became
one of the major groups in the region. Between 700 and 800 AD a man named Saif bin Dhi
Yazarı (alias Dugu) from the Maghumi clan of the Zaghawa welded these groups of people
together to establish the kingdom of Kanem under his leadership. In the process of his
unification, the Kanuri became the dominant culture and their language and culture were
adopted. Saif bin Dhi Yazan became the founder of Kanem and the originator of the Salfawa
Dynasty which ruled Kanem-Bornu from around 774 to 1846. Saif also established a new capital
at Nimi by relocating the administrative paraphernalia from Manan, the erstwhile capital. He
also instituted the traditional title of Mai as the head of Kanem monarchy.

The introduction of Islam into the Kanen kingdom in the 11th century impacted greatly on the
Saifawa dynasty. The religion of Islam was introduced into Kanem through the trans-Saharan
trade by North African Arab and Berber traders and scholars particularly one scholar named
Mohammed bin Mani. The first Kanem ruler to embrace Islam was Mai Umme Jilmi (1085-1097)
who took Muslim nanze Abdul Jelil, Islam offered the Salfawa-rulers the advantage of new ideas
from Arabia and the Medirerrancan world as well as literacy in administration, Other successors
of Mai Umme Jilmi also embreced Islam and ruled according to Islamic law. They included Mai
Dibalemi I (1097-

1150), Mai Dunama Dibalemi I (1221-1259), Mai Ali Ghaji (1472-1504), Mai Iris Katakarmabi
(1504-1526), Mai Idris Alooma (1571-1603) under whom Islam and the empire reached its
zenith of power and influence.
The Traditional political and Social System of Kanem-Bornu Kingdom.

The Kanem kingdom was administered by a king called the Mai who was both the political and
spiritual head of the kingdom. He did not appear in public except on two annual religious
festivals. He was assisted by a council of twelve officials and councilors. These councilors were
appointed from the Maina (members of the royal family) for a lifetime each with specific duties.
The empire was divided into four provinces under different officials. The Kaigama was the
Commander-In-Chief of the armed forces and the head of the Southern district. The Northern
Province was under the Yerima while the Mestrema headed the Eastern wing and
superintendent over the Mai's household. The Galadima was one of the most important
councilors and the head of the Western province. The Galadima was stationed at Nguru and he
was in control of the Western part of the kingdom up to Hausa cities of Kano, Katsina and Daura.
He was the only councilor that lived outside the capital. The Kaigama, Yerima, Mestrema and
the Galadima doubled as both political and military heads of their districts.

There was also the important office of the Queen mother (Magira) who controlled the domestic
arrangements of the royal court. Another female office was the office of the elder sister of the
king called the Gumsu and the office of the first wife of the king called Magara. These three
women were very influential in the traditional administration of the Kanem-Bornu empire. The
kingdom was also divided into fiefs held by the nobles called Chimakura who collected tributes
on behalf of the king. The Kanem judiciary was headed by a chief judge called Mainin Kanendi
(changed to Al-Qadi after the introduction of Islam). He was second in command to the Mai.
There were local judges in the areas outside the capital who dispensed justice on inter-personal
disputes while Inter-clan or group disputes were taken to the chief judge at the capital.

The kanem economy was based on agriculture and trade. The people engaged in long and short
distance trade. The kingdom was located on an important route of trans-Saharan trade from
Bilma Lo Tripoli. The king depended on two separate levies - Binemram (taxes on personal
properties) and Sada'a (royal revenue from communal property), for the Rise of Kanem Kingdom
and the Survival of the Saifawa Dynasty.

Geographical Location: The kingdom was located in a semi-desert region which was fertile. It
was also proximal to the Lake Chad and Rive Komadugu Yobe which provided stable water and
aquatic animals. The fertile soil was cultivated by the people for their survival and exchange of
surplus with their neighbors, particularly the Hausa.

Personal Leadership: The kingdom was blessed with strong and energetic leaders who
brought the people together, provided effective leadership and coordinated the affairs of the
people. These leaders included Saif bin dhi Yazan (the progenitor), Umme Jilmi, Dunama I and II,
All Ghaji, Iris Alooma and so on. These kings also lived long. facilitating consolidations of
conquests and reforms. For instance Dunama I reigned for 53 years, Dunama II (38 Years). Ali
Ghaji (32 years), Idris Katakarmabi (22 years) and Idris Alooma (32 years).

Efficient Military: The Kanem Kingdom had both cavalry and infantry forces which provided
internal security and warded off external aggressors under the four commanders. The Kanem
army received munitions from Arabi and North Africa with which it brought its neighbors to
submission.

Islam: The Islamic religion was also used by the Kanem rulers to bring the people under their
control and united the ruling class and the subjects.

Trans-Saharan Trade: The location of Kanem on the routes of the trans-Saharan trade from
Bilma to Tripoli afforded the people participation in the trans-Saharan trade which was the most
important economic activity of the era.

Political Administration: The Kanem people developed an efficient system of central and
provincial administration under the Mai. The system gratified the ambitions of the great officers
of state for wealth and power but also kept firm central control over key matters of local
administration. The non-princely families were encouraged by intermarriage and provision of
security.

The Saifawa Dynasty remains one of the longest dynasties in the world having ruled from 774 to
1846 when the Sheu dynasty of Al-Kanemi replaced it.

The Kanem kingdom was administered by a king called the Mai who was both the political and
spiritual head of the kingdom. He did not appear in public except on two annual religious
festivals. He was assisted by a council of twelve officials and councilors. These councilors were
appointed from the Maina (members of the royal family) for a lifetime each with specific duties.
The empire was divided into four provinces under different officials. The Kaigama was the
Commander-In-Chief of the armed forces and the head of the Southern district. The Northern
Province was under the Yerima while the Mestrena headed the Eastern wing and superintendent
over the Mai's household. The Galadina was one of the most important councilors and the head
of the Western province. The Galadima was stationed at Nguru and he was in control of the
Western part of the kingdom up to Hausa cities of Kano, Katsina and Daura. He was the only
councilor that lived outside the capital The Kaigama, Yerima, Mestrema and the Galadima
doubled as both political and military heads of their districts

There was also the important office of the Queen mother (Magira) who controlled the domestic
arrangements of the royal court. Another female office was the office of the elder sister of the
king called the Gumsu and the office of the first wife of the king called Magara. These three
women were very influential in the traditional administration of the Kanem-Bornu empire.
kingdom was also divided into fiefs held by the nobles called Chimakura who collected tributes
on behalf of the king. The Kanem judiciary was headed by a chief judge called Mainin Kanendi
(changed to Al-Qadi after the introduction of Islam). He was second in command to the Mai.
There were local judges in the areas outside the capital who dispensed justice on inter-personal
disputes while inter-clan or group disputes were taken to the chief judge at the capital.

The kanem economy was based on agriculture and trade. The people engaged in long and short
distance trade. The kingdom was located on an important route of trans-Saharan trade from
Bilma Lo Tripoli. The king depended on two separato levies - Binemram (taxes on personal
properties) and Sada'a (royal revenue from communal property)

Factors for the Rise of Kanem Kingdom and the Survival of the Saifawa
Dynasty.

Geographical Location: The kingdom was located in a semi-desert region which was fertile. It
was also proximal to the Lake Chad and Rive Komadugu Yobe which provided stable water and
aquatic animals. The fertile soil was cultivated by the people for their survival and exchange of
surplus with their neighbors, particularly the Hausa.

Personal Leadership: The kingdom was blessed with strong and energetic leaders who brought
the people together, provided effective leadership and coordinated the affairs of the people.
These leaders included Saif bin dhi Yazan (the progenitor). Umme Jilmi, Dunama I and II, Ali
Ghaji, Iris Alooma and so on. These kings also lived long. facilitating consolidations of
conquests and reforms. For instance Dunama I reigned for 53 years, Dunama II (38 Years), Ali
Ghaji (32 years), Idris Katakarmabi (22 years) and Idris Alooma (32 years).

Efficient Military: The Kanem Kingdom had both cavalry and infantry forces which provided
internal security and warded off external aggressors under the four commanders. The Kanem
army received munitions from Arabi and North Africa with which it brought its neighbors to
submission.

Islam: The Islamic religion was also used by the Kanem rulers to bring the people under their
control and united the ruling class and the subjects.

Trans-Saharan Trade: The location of Kanem on the routes of the trans-Saharan trade from
Bilma to Tripoli afforded the people participation in the trans-Saharan trade which was the most
important economic activity of the era.

Political Administration: The Kanem people developed an efficient system of central and
provincial administration under the Mai. The system gratified the ambitions of the great officers
of state for wealth and power but also kept firm central control over key matters of local
administration. The non-princely families were encouraged by Intermarriage and provision of
security.

The Saifawa Dynasty remains one of the longest dynasties in the world having ruled from 774 to
1846 when the Sheu dynasty of Al-Kanemi replaced it.
The Patterns of Portical Development in the Niger-Benue
Confluence Region

Introduction

The area referred to as the Niger-Benue region in Nigeria is otherwise referred to as the Middle
Belt or Central Nigeria or North Central in the modern six geo-political zones of Nigeria. The
people there are referred to as Northerners but are not Kanuri or Hausa/Fulani but most of them
understand and speak the Hausa language along with their native tongues. The people who
occupy this region include the Igala, the Agatu, Idoma, the Tiv, the Egbira, the Gbari, the
Northeast Yoruba peoples like the Owe, Bunu, Yagha, e.t.c. They also include the peoples of the
upper Benue Basin and Bauchi Plateau such as the Jukun, the Chamba and the Bata among
others. The most prominent among all these groups were the Jukun, Nupe, Igala, Tiv and the
Egbira who organized centralized and non-centralised systems of government in the period
before 1500.

Traditions of Origin of the Jukun, Nupe, Igala and the Tiv

According to Jukun traditions, the people's ancestors nigrated from Yemen, east of Mecca as a
soult of disagreement with the prophet Muhammed] under their leader, Agadu Atiother tradition
traces Jukun migration to Yemen along with the Kanuri and settled first at Ngazargamu. In the
Hausa tradition, the Jukun were known as Kororofa/Kwararafa and identified as one of the
seven bastard sons of Bawo, the son of Bayajidda, the ancestor of the Hausa

On the other hand, the Igala trace their ancestry to one Agenapoje who was the ancestor of the
Atta king of garra. Agenapoje was believed to have landed on a rock near Idah [the capital)
having been sent by God. Some Igala traditions also link the igala with the Yoruba, Benin and
Jukun. The Nupe claims to have descended from one Tsoede, the son of an Idah king. Isoede
succeeded in establishing supremacy over the existing 12 Nupe groups namely: Ehe,
Ghedegi/Gbedye, Kusopa, Benu, Beni, Dibo/Zitaki, Kyedye, Kede, Ebagi, Batson, kupa, Cekpa and
Gwagba. He became the first Etsu Nupe, a warrior king who conquered the Yugba, Bunu and
Kakanda to the South and the Kamberi and Kamuku to the North. As for the Tiv, traditions claim
that one Takaruku was the ancestor of the Tiv who migrated from the area of Southern
Cameroon. The major Tiv groups are the iHarev and the iMasev.
Pre-colonial Political and Cultural Organization among the Jukun, Nupe,
gala and the TIV

The Junkun had a monarchical, theocratic and centralized system of headed by their king called
Aka Uka. He was based in tre capital Wukari (Bepi Puje) and was a 'divine King' who was
surrounded by a number of taboos. He was assisted by a Council of Chiets headed by Abo the
prime minister and second in command to the Aku and the people's representative in their
relation with the Aka. The Nupe too had a centralized political of administration where the Etsu
based in Gbara, the capital. After the attacks of the Fulani jihadist in the 19 century a new Nupe
capital was established in Bida Emirate which was divided into three the Inner City (for the Emirs
and nobles). the Greater Bida (for the indigenes) and the Strangers quarters (for non-indigenes).
The Igala monarchy was headed by the Atta who was assisted by a council of nine elders called
the Igala Mela. The Igala Mela headed by an official called Ashadu appointed a new Atta from
among the members of the royal families.

The Tiv did not have a centralized system or monarchy. Their system of government was based
or centered on a secret society called Mba Tsav whose members provided the principal rulers of
every kindred. One of thuse rulers was the Tee (spokesman) who controlled the spiritual and
legislativa aspects of the goldenkient. Another one was the Shagba Or (man of substance]
which was reserved for any wealthy person, Both the Tee and the Shagha Or were elected by a
council which advised the Shagba Or in his duties especially those relating to safeguarding
internal security and settling disputes. The Shagba Or administered the laws enacted by the Tec
and with the assistance of the council passed sentences on convicted criminals.

Inter-Group Relations among the Peoples of the Niger-Benue Region

All the peoples of the Niger-Benue region had socio-cultural and commercial relations in the pre-
colonial period, Commercially, the people intermingled at important market centers in their
region such as Ruba [near jebba), Egga lower down the Niger River, Funda (Panda or Odokodo]
above the confluence of the Niger-Benue and the Ikiri [or Okiri] between Idah and Igbegbe near
the confluence. At Raba, it is recorded that the Hausa, Yoruba, Nupe and other traders met
Arabs who did business with Bornu, Kano, Timbuktu and Tripoli. The Arabs brought horses,
asses, raw silk, and so on while the people supply yam, corn, onions, sweet potatoes, sheep,
goat and fowls, ivory. indigo, ostriches, leopard skins, etc. Evidence of wide commercial in tt e
region may be inferred from the existenee of a form of currency which resembled a small hoe
with a long spike at one end. The currency was called Akika in Idoma and Jukun known as Ibia
among the Tiv and known as Agelema by the Hausa.