AGRICULTURE AS A PRIMARY SECTOR

INTRODUCTION
• Agriculture is an age-old economic activity in our country.
• The agricultural sector of India has occupied almost 43% of India's geo-graphical area
and over 58% of the rural household is dependent on agriculture as their principal
means of livelihood.
• Agriculture and allied sector contributed 17.76% in the financial year 2019-20.
• Agricultural sectors contribution in employment declined from 81% (1983) to 58%
(2018) as per 38 round of NSS and PLFS (2018-19).
• The percentage of male workers in agricultural activities declined from 78% (1983) to
53% (2018), while female workers share fell from 88% to 71%.
• It is the largest unorganised sector of the economy accounting for more than 90%
share in total unorganised labour force.
TYPES OF AGRICULTURE
The following are the main agricultural systems.

Subsistence Agriculture Subsistence agriculture is one in which the farming areas
consume all, or nearly so, of the products locally grown. It can be grouped in two
categories — Primitive Subsistence Agriculture and Intensive Subsistence
Agriculture.
1. Primitive Subsistence Agriculture Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting
cultivation is widely practised by many tribes in the tropics, especially in Africa, south
and central America and south east Asia. The vegetation is usually cleared by fire, and
the ashes add to the fertility of the soil. Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slash
and burn agriculture. Jhuming in North eastern states of India, Milpa in central
America and Mexico and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia
2. Intensive Subsistence Agriculture This type of agriculture is largely found in densely
populated regions of monsoon Asia. Basically, there are two types of intensive
subsistence agriculture.
(i) Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by wet paddy cultivation: This
type of agriculture is characterised by dominance of the rice crop. Land holdings
are very small due to the high density of population.
(ii) Intensive subsidence agriculture dominated by crops other than paddy: Due
to the difference in relief, climate, soil and some of the other geographical
factors, it is not practical to grow paddy in many parts of monsoon Asia. In

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 India, most parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains and millets are grown in dry parts
of western and southern India

Plantation Agriculture Plantation agriculture was introduced by the Europeans in
colonies situated in the tropics. Some of the important plantation crops are tea, coffee,
cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas and pineapples. The characteristic
features of this type of farming are large estates or plantations, large capital
investment, managerial and technical support, scientific methods of cultivation, single
crop specialisation, cheap labour, and a good system of transportation which links the
estates to the factories and markets for the export of the products

Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation is practised in the interior parts of semi-
arid lands of the midlatitudes. Wheat is the principal crop, though other crops like
corn, barley, oats and rye are also grown. The size of the farm is very large, therefore
entire operations of cultivation from ploughing to harvesting are mechanised

Mixed Farming This form of agriculture is found in the highly developed parts of the
world, e.g. North-western Europe, Eastern North America, parts of Eurasia and the
temperate latitudes of Southern continents.

Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of rearing of milch animals. It is highly
capital intensive. Animal sheds, storage facilities for fodder, feeding and machines
add to the cost of dairy farming. Special emphasis is laid on cattle breeding, health
care and veterinary services.

Market Gardening and Horticulture specialise in the cultivation of high value
crops such as vegetables, fruits and flowers, solely for the urban markets. Farms are
small and are located where there are good transportation links with the urban centre
where high income group of consumers is located. The regions where farmers
specialise in vegetables only, the farming is know as truck farming

Features of Indian Agricultural Sector

1. Dependence on Monsoon : Agriculture in mainly dependent on monsoon especially the
summer monsoon. Only about 55% of the total cropped area is under irrigation.
2. Pre-dominance of food grains : In both the kharif the rabi seasons, grain crops occupy
the greatest proportion of the cropped area.
3. Subsistent in character : The cultivators and farmers grow crops mainly for family
consumption. It is only in the controlled irrigated parts of the country like Punjab,
Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh where agriculture has become an agri business.
4. Small Size of Land Holdings : Over 70% of the holding are either small or marginal i.e
loss than one hectare. The small size of holdings and fragmented fields are unsuitable for
modern methods of agriculture.
5. Source of livelihood : It provides employment to nearly 50% of the total population.
6. Low productivity : In comparison to other countries, the Indian agricultural yields are
among the lowest in the world. The main cause of low yields per hectare is the low
fertility of soil and less care to replenish it.
7. Labour Internsive : Agriculture in Indian is Labour based enterprise in which most of
the agricultural operations are carried mainly by human hands

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Cropping pattern:
Cropping pattern shows a set and combination of crops which farmers opt in a particular
region. In other words, it means the proportion of area under different crops at a given point
of time.
Factors
ors Affecting Cropping Pattern
I. Geographical Factors : The physical environment (physiography, soil, climate, water
etc.) plays a very important role in the growth and distribution of plants and animals.
II. Cultural Factors : Food habits, customs, traditions
Socio-Cultural ions etc. Infrastructure Factors-
Factors
Irrigation, Storage, Transport, Extension Services etc.
III. Economic Factors : Land ownership, land tenancy, land tenure, size of land holding
also influence the cropping patterns. For example, a farmer with small holding prefer
pre
labour intensive Crop while a large holding farmer adopts capital intensive crop.
IV. Technological Factors : Improved varieties of seeds and plants, machanisation, plant
protection etc. have changed the physical limits like the cultivation of rice in Punjab,
Punj
Haryana and Ganganagar district of Rajasthan affirms the fact.
V. Government Policy : Subsidy on farm inputs svdvas seeds, fertilizers have resulted
in record production of food grains. Provision of irrigation, knowledge dissemination
have induced farmers to adopt new crops or use better crop combinations.

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MONOCROPPING : Is when the field is used to grow only one crop season after season.
Example Planting Wheat year after year in the same field. It is difficult to maintain soil
coverage , encourages pests,
s, diseases and weeds and can reduce soil fertility and damage soil
structure in the long run.
Crop Rotation: Crop Rotation means changing the type of crops grown in the field each
season or each year (or changing from crops to fallow). Example : planting maize one year,
and beans the next. Croprotation is a key principle of agriculture conservation because it
improves the soil structure and fertility, and helps control weeds, pests and diseases.
Sequential Cropping: Sequential Cropping involves growing two crops in the same field,
one after the other in the same year. Example : planting maize in the long rains, then beans
during the short rains. Growing two crops may also be possible if there are two rainy seasons,
or if there is enough moisture left in the soil to grow a second crop.
Intercropping: means growing two or more crops in the same field at the same time.
Examples : planting alternating rows of maize and beans.
Relay Cropping: it involves the process of growing one crop, then planting another crop in
the same field before harvesting the first.
GREEN REVOLUTION
• Green Revolution was a government programme of agriculture modernisation.
• It was largely funded by
International agencies and Mechanise
was based on providing
Highyielding variety (HYV) d farming
or hybrid seeds
eds along with
pesticides, fertilisers, and High
Emphasis of
other inputs, to farmers. yield
commercial
• Green Revolution variety
agriculture
programmes were seeds
introduced only in areas that
had assured irrigation.
• Agricultural productivity
increased sharply because of Establishin
Expansion of
the new technology. g
irrigation
India was able to to attain
a distributio
• channel
self sufficient in foodgrain n channels
production for the first time in decades.
• Green Revolution word first used by Dr. William Grande.
• Father of Green revolution – Dr. Norman Borlaug( Nobel laurate) .
• Father of Green revolution in India – D. M.S Swaminathan .
• Intensive District Area Programme was started on 1960-61.
1960
• High Yielding Variety Programme was started on 1966-67.
1966
• Green Revolution was started in the year 1966

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Schemes Under Green Revolution in India
• Prime Minister Narendra Modi approved the Umbrella Scheme Green Revolution –
‘Krishonnati Yojana’ in the agriculture sector for the period of three years from 2017
to 2020 with the Central Share of Rs. 33,269.976 crore.
• The Umbrella scheme Green revolution- Krishonnati Yojana comprises 11 Schemes
under it and all these schemes look to develop the agriculture and allied sector in a
scientific and holistic manner so as to increase the income of farmers by increasing
productivity, production, and better returns on produce, strengthening production
infrastructure, reducing the cost of production and marketing of agriculture and allied
produce.
The 11 schemes that are part of the Umbrella Schemes under the Green revolution are:
1. MIDH – Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture – It aims to promote the
comprehensive growth of the horticulture sector, enhance the production of the sector,
improve nutritional security, and increase income support to household farms.
2. NFSM – National Food Security Mission – This includes NMOOP – National Mission
on Oil Seeds and Oil Palm. The aim of this scheme is to increase the production of wheat
pulses, rice, coarse cereals and commercial crops, productivity enhancement, and area
expansion in a suitable manner, enhancing farm level economy, restoring soil fertility and
productivity at the individual farm level. It further aims to reduce imports and increase
the availability of vegetable oils and edible oils in the country.
3. NMSA – National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture – the aim is to promote
sustainable agriculture practices that are best suitable to the specific agro-ecology
focusing on integrated farming, appropriate soil health management, and synergizing
resource conservation technology.
4. SMAE – Submission on Agriculture Extension – this scheme aims to strengthen the
ongoing extension mechanism of State Governments, local bodies, etc. achieving food
security and socio-economic empowerment of farmers, to forge effective linkages and
synergy amongst various stakeholders, to institutionalize program planning and
implementation mechanism, support HRD interventions, promote pervasive and
innovative use of electronic and print media, interpersonal communication, and ICT tools,
etc.
5. SMSP – Sub-Mission on Seeds and Planting Material – This aims to increase the
production of quality seed, upgrade the quality of farm-saved seeds and increase SRR,
strengthen the seed multiplication chain, and promote new methods and technologies in
seed production, processing, testing, etc., to strengthen and modernize infrastructure for
seed production, storage, quality, and certification, etc.
6. SMAM – Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanisation – aims to increase the reach of
farm mechanization to small and marginal farmers and to the regions where availability of
farm power is low, to promote ‘Custom Hiring Centres’ to offset the adverse economies
of scale arising due to small landholding and high cost of individual ownership, to create
hubs for hi-tech and high-value farm equipment, to create awareness among stakeholders
through demonstration and capacity building activities, and to ensure performance testing
and certification at designated testing centres located all over the country.
7. SMPPQ – Sub Mission on Plant Protection and Plan Quarantine – the aim of this
scheme is to minimize loss to quality and yield of agricultural crops from insects, pests,
weeds, etc., to shield our agricultural bio-security from the incursions and spread of alien
species, to facilitate exports of Indian agricultural commodities to global markets, and to

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 promote good agricultural practices, particularly with respect to plant protection strategies
and strategies.
8. ISACES – Integrated Scheme on Agriculture Census, Economics, and Statistics – this
aims to undertake the agriculture census, undertake research studies on agro-economic
problems of the country, study the cost of cultivation of principal crops, fund conferences,
workshops, and seminars involving eminent agricultural scientists, economists, experts so
as to bring out papers to conduct short term studies, improve agricultural statistics
methodology and to create a hierarchical information system on crop condition and crop
production from sowing to harvest.
9. ISAC – Integrated Scheme on Agricultural Cooperation aims to provide financial
assistance for improving the economic conditions of cooperatives, remove regional
imbalances, to speed up cooperative development in agricultural processing, storage,
marketing, computerization, and weaker section programs; ensuring the supply of quality
yarn at reasonable rates to the decentralized weavers and help cotton growers fetch a
remunerative price for their produce through value addition.
10. ISAM – Integrated Scheme on Agricultural Marketing – this scheme aims to develop
agricultural marketing infrastructure; to promote innovative technologies and competitive
alternatives in agriculture marketing infrastructure; to provide infrastructure facilities for
grading, standardization, and quality certification of agricultural produce; to establish a
nationwide marketing information network; to integrate markets through a common
online market platform to facilitate pan-India trade in agricultural commodities, etc.
11. And, NeGP-A – National e-Governance Plan aims to bring farmer-centric & service-
oriented programs; to improve access of farmers to information and services throughout
the crop-cycle and enhance the reach and impact of extension services; to build upon,
enhance and integrate the existing ICT initiatives of the Centre and States; to enhance
efficiency and effectiveness of programs through providing timely and relevant
information to the farmers for increasing their agriculture productivity.
Impact of Green Revolution in India
1. Green Revolution has remarkably increased Agricultural Production. Foodgrains in India
saw a great rise in output. The biggest beneficiary of the revolution was the Wheat Grain.
The production increased to 55 million tonnes in the early stage of the plan itself.
2. Not just limited to agricultural output the revolution also increased per Acre yield. Green
Revolution increased the per hectare yield in the case of wheat from 850 kg per hectare to
an incredible 2281 kg/hectare in its early stage.
3. With the introduction of the Green revolution, India reached its way to self-sufficiency
and was less dependent on imports. The production in the country was sufficient to meet
the demand of the rising population and to stock it for emergencies. Rather than
depending on the import of food grains from other countries India started exporting its
agricultural produce.
4. The introduction of the revolution inhibited a fear among the masses that commercial
farming would lead to unemployment and leave a lot of the labour force jobless. But the
result seen was totally different there was a rise in rural employment. The tertiary
industries such as transportation, irrigation, food processing, marketing, etc created
employment opportunities for the workforce.
5. The Green Revolution in India majorly benefited the farmers of the country. Farmers not
only survived but also prospered during the revolution their income saw a significant rise
which enabled them to shift from sustenance farming to commercial farming.

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DRAWBACKS OF FIRST GREEN REVOLUTION:
• While the first green revolution achieved many successes, there were
were also many flaws in
its strategy which were not envisaged at that time.
• These flaws included negative impact on environment and health due to excessive use of
fertilizers and pesticides , depletion of soil nutrition, depletion of water resources
includingg ground water and higher input.
• The introduction of machinery such as tillers, tractors, threshers and harvesters led to the
displacement of the marginal groups who used to carry out there agriculture related
activities.
• Green Revolution enriched large landholders
landholders and farmers while it further deteriorated the
economic conditions of small and marginal farmers.
• The new technology also seamed to be increasing inequalities in rural society.
Neoliberalization of the Indian economy led to deep agrarian crisis making
ma small scale
farming an unviable vocation.
• Privatized seeds, inputs and inaccessible markets made agriculture expensive for
peasants, trapping Indian farmers into a vicious debt cycle.
Green Revolution

Zero Budget
et Natural Farming
• Zero Budget Natural Farming is a method of chemical free agriculture drawn from
traditional Indian practices.
• It was originally promoted by Maharashtrian agriculturist Subhash Palekar, in the mid
1990s as an alternative to the Green Revolution
Revolution methods driven by chemical fertilizer,
pesticides and intensive irrigation.
• Karnataka was the pioneer in adopting ZBNF.
• As both a social and environmental programme, it aims to ensure that farming
particularly small holder farming is economically viable
viable by enhancing farm biodiversity
and Environmental impacts like water & soil pollution & hybrid crops.

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 Reduces reliance on
chemical fertilizers and Discourages deep ploughing
pesticides and intensive irrigation

ZBNF
Intercropping
Soil aeration

Minimal watering
Bunds and top soil mulching

Second Green Revolution for Sustainable Livelihood

• The first Green Revolution was to ensure food security as there was severe scarcity of
food in the country.
• The second Green Revolution aims at creating sustainable agriculture by leveraging
advancements in technology.
What we want from Second Green Revolution
• Improving agricultural production while generating gainful self-employment for the
small farmers and weaker sections of the society.
• Scaling up food production without disturbing the ecological balance.
• Boosting agricultural development, women empowerment and environmental protection.
(Women are the major power in agriculture as about 65-70% of the labour in crop
production is contributed by women).
• Reclaiming degraded and low fertile lands and lands deprived of irrigation.

Improving soil quality

Improving credit and reclaiming
availability degraded land
Rain water harvesting
and watershed Increasing crop yields in
development Eastern states

SECOND GREEN Organic farming and

Use of plant breeding REVOLUTION contract farming
and bio technology

Encouraging private
investments through
tax law amendments
Invest in research of
drought proof crops and
climate change
Amending the
Agricultural Produce
Marketing Committee
Acts.

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Bringing Green Revolution In Eastern India Programme (BGREI)
• BGREI was launched in 2010-11, as part of the Rashtriya Krishi Vikash Yojana. It was
implemented in the eastern regions of the country.
• It focused on resource allocation and utilization.
• It has resulted in robust increase in food grains production.
• The main objectives of BGREI is to harness the potential for enhancing agricultural
production in Eastern India which was underutilized.
• It also focuses on yielding maximum rice and wheat productivity water hemisection and
water utilization.
MAJOR AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
• Green revolution – Food grains
• White Revolution- Milk and Dairy products
• Silver Revolution- Egg and Poultry
• Yellow Revolution- Oilseed
• Blue Revolution- Fisheries.
• Pink Revolution- Prawns and Onion
• Golden revolution- Honey
• Golden Fibre Revolution- Jute
• Silver Fibre Revolution- Cotton
• Black Revolution- Petroleum
• Round Revolution- Potato
• Fibre revolution- Cotton
EVERGREEN REVOLUTION:
• The major problems associated with the green revolution are related to environmental
factors like depletion and pollution of groundwater, soil erosion and loss of biodiversity.
• It is these deficiencies that can be remedied through the Evergreen Revolution is also
known as Second Green Revolution.
• Evergreen revolution refers to productivity improvement to perpetuity refers to
productivity improvement in perpetuity without ecological and social harm. It facilitates
the integration of ecological principles in technology development and dissemination.
RAINBOW REVOLUTION:
• The agricultural policy of 2000 envisaged holistic development of Indian Agriculture and
aimed to achieve 4% annual growth rate through Rainbow Revolution.
• Rainbow Revolution is an integrated development of crop cultivation, horticulture,
forestry, fishery, poultry, animal husbandry and food processing industry.

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TRICOLOUR REVOLUTION:
• The reference to a Tricolor Revolution was made by Prime minister with three major
color components of the flag which are as follows:
I. Saffron Revolution for promotion and better utilization of solar energy.
II. White Revolution for increasing milk production
III. Blue Revolution for fisherman’s welfare and clean water.
OPERATION GREEN
• Finance minister of India announced Operation green on the lines of Operation Flood
with an autlay of 500 rupees .
• It aims to promote Framer Producers Organisations , Agrilogistics, processing facilities,
and professional management.
• Accordingly, the Ministry ha sformulated a scheme for development of Tomato, Onion,
and Potato value chain.
• As per Union Budget 2021-22, Operation Green Scheme has been extended to 22
perishable items to boost value addition in agriculture and allied products.
STRUCTURAL REFORMS IN AGARIAN SECTOR
• Strengthening of agricultural market infrastructure.
• Extending the procurement mechanism to all foodgrains and non foodgrains crops to all
states.
• Implementing of price deficiency payment system for selected crops.
NATIONAL COMMISSION ON FARMERS
• The commission was constituted in 2004, under the chairmanship of Dr. M.S.
Swaminathan.
• It suggested an Agricultural Renewal Plan having five components.
• Soil health enhancement with special focus on dairy farming.
• Credit and insurance facilities like creation of agriculture risk fund.
• Technological reforms in the form of proper integration of production and post harvest
technologies,
• Assured and remunerative marketing.
• The commission also suggested a Risk Stabilization Fund, a farmer centric minimum
support Price and market integration scheme and creation of Pani Panchayats.
IRRIGATION
• In June 2010, the scheme was up scaled to National Mission on Micro irrigation, which
continued till the year 2013-14, NMMI was under National Mission on Sustainable
Agriculture. And implemented as one of the components under On farm water
Management during 2014-15.
• From 1st July 2015, the scheme has ben under Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana
and implemented as per Drop More Crop component of PMKSY.

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• PRADHAN MANTRI KRISHI SINCHAI YOJANA : Was launched in 2015-16 with the
motto of Har khet ko Paani for providing end to end solutions in irrigation supply chains.
• The PMKSY not only focusses on creating sources for assured irrigation, but also creates
Protective irrigation by harnessing rain water at micro level through Jal Sanchay and Jal
Sinchai.
• Accelerated irrigation benefit programme being implemented by Ministry of Jal Shakti.
• PMKSY- Har khet Ko Paani being implemented by Ministry of Jal Shakti.
• PMKSY – per Drop More Crop is operational in the country from 2015-16. it focuses on
enhancing water efficiency at farm level through Micro irrigation. It also supports Micro
level water storage or water conservation activities to supplement source creation for
Micro Irrigation.
NEERANCHAL WATERSHED YOJANA
• The project is implemented by the Union Ministry Of Rural Development over a six year
period (2016-21) to achieve desired objective of PMKSY from October 2015.
• It will support the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana in hydrology and water
management, agricultural production systems, capacity building, Monitoring and
evaluation.
• It seeks to ensure access to irrigation to every farmland and for efficient use of water.
STORAGE
• Recently, the Cabinet Committee on economic Affairs approved a corpus of 2000 crore
rupees for Agri Market infrastructure Fund to be created with NABARD for development
and upgradation of agricultural marketing infrastructure in rural agricultural markets.
• The Agri-market infrastructure fund was announced in 2018 Budget for developing and
upgrading agricultural marketing infrastructure in the 22000 Gramin Agricultural Markets
(GrAMs) and 585 Agricultural Produce Market Committee (APMC)
• At present, GrAms are being developed from MGNREGA fund
FARM SUBSIDIES
POWER SUBSIDY: is granted on power that is used to draw on groundwater. Accordingly,
it is a subsidy to privately drawing and privately owned means of irrigation.
IRRIGATION SUBSIDY: provided on the usage of government provided canal water.
Irrigation subsidy is the difference between operating and maintenance cost of irrigation
infrastructure in the state and irrigation charges recovered from farmers.
• This may work through provisions of public goods such as Canals and dams which
the government constructs and charges low prices or no prices at all for their use from
the farmers.
SEED SUBSIDY: is granted through the distribution of quality seeds at a price less than the
market price.
• 25 seed- Hub centres have been sanctioned across the country for increasing
availability of quality seeds of Nutri-Cereals.

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 • In 2018-19, the government of India launched a National Millet Mission which
included renaming millets as Nutri-Cereals.
CREDIT SUBSIDY: is the difference between interest charged from farmers and actual cost
of providing credit, plus other costs such as write-offs bad loans.
INFRASTRUCTURAL SUBSIDY: Private efforts to construct basic infrastructure in many
area do not prove to be sufficient to improve agricultural production.
• Good roads, storage facilities, power, information about the market, transportation to
the ports, ets are vital for carrying out production and sale operation.
• These facilities are in public goods domain the costs of which are huge and whose
benefits acquire to all the cultivation in an area.
FERTILIZER SUBSIDIES: are borne by the Central government. Making fertilizer
available to farmers at a low and affordable price to encourage their use and increase
production.
• Retention price Scheme (1977): Under RPS, the government fixes a fair ex-factory
price for various fertilizers of different manufactures.
• The Government Of India implemented a Nutrient Based Scheme with effect from
2010. Under the NBS Scheme, a fixed subsidy is announced on per kg basis on
nutrients annually.
ISSUES RELATED TO FARM SUBSIDIES
Capital Investment:
• Farm subsidies are a drain on public finance.
• Subsidies are reducing the share of money that goes for Capital investment.
• Today, only about 15% of the APMCs have Cold storage facilities. Also, less than
50% of Mandis in the country have weighing machines.
Unregulated use:
• The other concern due to input subsidies for agriculture is the unmindful use of
resources such as water and power.
• Input subsidies including those on area have resulted in overuse of nitrogenous
fertilizers and spoilt soil health.
Cropping pattern:
• Subsidies have also skewed the cropping pattern, which has, in the process taken a toll
on the environment as well.
• Monoculture has resulted in an increase in pest and disease attacks on crops and
higher usage of chemical fertilisers.
NEEM COATED UREA POLICY 2015
• Department of Fertilizers circulated a notification dated 25 May, 2015, has mandatory
for all the indigenous producers of Urea as Neem Coated urea.
• Since NCU can not be used for industrial purposes.

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 • New Urea Policy 2015, aims to incentivize domestic manufactures and free
transportation of Phosphorous and Potassium
Potassium fertilizers enforced from 2015 to 2019.
• India is world’s 3rd largest consumer of fertilizers. India is highly import dependent in
the case of urea.
• Presently, India is importing about 80 lakh metric tonnes of urea out of total demand
of 310 lakh metric tonnes.
onnes.
FOOD SECURITY:
• The World Food Summit of 1996 defined food security as all people, at all times, have
physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutrition food to meet
their dietary needs and food preference for an active and healthy
healthy life.
• India’s food security programme tries to tackle some of these problems through
various intervention scheme.
• The main interventions can be said to be the Public Distribution System and the
National Food Security Act, 2013.

Public Distribution System (PDS):

• The Public Distribution System (PDS) evolved as a system of management of
scarcity through distribution of food grains at affordable prices. PDS is supplementary
in nature and is not intended to make available the entire requirement of any of theth
commodities distributed under it.
• PDS is operated under the joint responsibility of the Central and the State
Governments. The Central Government through Food Corporation of India (FCI) has
assumed the responsibility for procurement, storage, transportation
transportat and bulk
allocation of foodgrains to the State governments.
Revamped Public Distribution System (RPDS)
• The Revamped Public Distribution System (RPDS) was launched in June, 1992 with a
view to strengthen and streamline the PDS as well as to improve its reach in the far-
flung, hilly, remote and inaccessible areas where a substantial section of the poor
lives.
• Foodgrains for distribution in RPDS were issued to the States at 50 paise below the
central issue price.. The scale of issue was upto 20 kg per card.
card
Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS)
• The TPDS as it operated earlier had been widely criticised for its failure to serve the
population below the poverty line.

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 • On the basis of the recommendations of the Chief MinistersConference held in July
1996, an effort was made to streamline the PDS, through the introduction of the
Targeted Public Distribution System in June, 1997.
• This system follows a 2 tier subsided pricing structure for families Below Poverty
Line (BPL) and for those Above Poverty Line (APL).
• The identification of poor under the scheme is done by the States as per the state-wise
poverty estimates of Planning Commission.
Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY)
• In order to make Targeted PDS more effective the Government had launched the
Antyodaya Anna Yojana in December 2000,e The objective of the scheme was to
identify the poorest households among the BPL category and to provide each of them
with total 25 kg of food grains per month at a fixed price of 32 per kg for wheat and 3
per kg for rice.
• The Scale of issue that was initially 25 kg per month was increased to 35 kg per
family per month with effect from 1 April, 2002.
Food Corporation of India
• Food Corporation of India are another alternative to PDS. Beneficiary are provided
with food coupons which are equivalent to money.
• FCI is responsible for procuring grains at the MSP from farmers, maintaining
operational and buffer stocks of grains to ensure food security, allocating grains to
states, distributing and transporting grains to the state depots, selling the grains to
states at the central issue price to be eventually passed on to the beneficiaries.
National Food Security Act, 2013 (NFSA)
• NFSA was passed the by Parliament with the statutory backing for Right to Food.
• The states are responsible for creating criteria and identifying eligible households.
• It provides for establishment of State Food Commissioners, Vigilance Committees at
district and block levels.
• NFSA is the biggest intervention of its kind in the world in the realm of food security.
If implemented property this can improve the lives of millions people.
International Fund for Agricultural Development
• IFAD is an International Financial Institution and a specialised UN agency based in
Rome-the agricultural hub. It is unique partnership of 165 members from the
Organisation of Petroleum Countries (OPEC), other developing countries and the
Organisation for Economic Development (OECD).
• IFAD provides for a strong global platform for discussing rural policy issues-and for
increasing awareness about why investment in agricultural and rural development is
critical for reducing poverty and improving food security.
NAFED
• National Agriculture Cooperation Marketing Federation of India Limited is the apex
co-operative organisation at the national level.

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 • It was set up with an objective to promote cooperative marketing of agricultural
produce to benefit the farmers.
• It deals in procurement, distribution, export and import of selected agricultural
commodities. It was established in 1958.
Major Schemes in Agricultural Sector
1. Pradhan Mantri Kisan Maan Dhan Yojana (PM-KMY)
• PM-KMY was launched in September, 2019. It is a central sector scheme which aims
to provide the social security net for the small and marginal farmers.
• It provides for payment of minimum pension of 33000 per month to the eligible small
and marginal farmers on attaining the age of 60 years.
• It is a voluntary and contributory pension scheme with entry age of 18 to 40 years.
Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi Yojana
• It is a Central Sector Scheme for small and marginal farmers to provide financial
assistance for purchase of agricultural inputs.
• The scheme was introduced on 24 February, 2019 from Gorakhpur under which a
total of 36,000 is to be given to farmers in 3 equal installments every 4 months.
• The scheme is expected to cover 14.5 crore families during year 2019-20.Under the
scheme, financial benefit has been provided to all small and marginal farmers with
total cultivable holding upto 2 hectares.
• The complete expenditure of 75,000 crore for the scheme will be borne by the Union
Government in 2019-20.
KUSUM Scheme
• The Union Government has announced 1.4 lakh crore kisan Urya Suraksha evam
Utthaan Mahabhiyan (KUSUM) Scheme for promoting solar farming.
• Government will provide 60% subsidy on solar pumps to farmers. It will be shared
between Centre and States while 30% will be provided through banks.
• It would provide extra income to farmers, by giving them an option to sell additional
power to the grid through solar power projects set up on their barrenlands. It would
help in de-dieseling the sector as also the DISCOMs.
Agriculture Marketing
• Most of the States and Union Territories have enacted legislations. The Agriculture
Produce Marketing Committee (APMC) Act provides for regulation of agricultural
produce markets.17 States or UTs have amended APMC Act.
• The APMC has its own marketing regulation and set of rules which govern the
agricultural marketing.
National Agricultural Market
• On 14th April 2016, Prime Minister launched National Agricultural Market (NAM)
as a pan-India electronic trading portal for farm produce which creates a unified
national market for agricultural commodities by integrating the existing Agriculture
Produce Market Committee (APMC).

Presented by Juthika Dey # 15

 • The portal provides a single window service for all APMC related services and
information. .
e-Rakam : e-Rashtriya Kisan Agri Mandi (e-RaKAM) portal aims to provide a platform for
farmers to sell agricultural produce. E-RAKAM is a first-of its kind initiative that encourages
technology to connect farmers of the smallest villages to the biggest markets of the world
through internet and e-RaKAM centres
Gobardhan Yojana
th
On 30 April, 2018 Union Minister for Drinking Water and Sanitation launched the
Gobardhan Scheme from Haryana's Kaushal district with an aim to positively contribute to
cleanliness and generation of energy from solid waste,Bio-gas, the most common form of
bio-fuel is a clean form of energy and can be obtained from cattle dung, poultry droppings,
crop residue, kitchen waste etc.
GOBAR-DHAN (Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro Resources-Dhan) shall benefit rural
people in general as a women in particular from this clean fuel.
Green Revolution-Krishonnati Yojana
• The Union Government continued the umbrella scheme Green Revolution also called
Krishonnati Yojana- beyond 12th Five Year Plan from 2017 to 2020. It is an umbrella
scheme comprising of 11 schemes and 11 missions.Benefits of the Scheme.
• The Scheme will help achieve food security in the nation by providing impetus to the
production of rice, wheat, pulses and coarse grains.
• It will help in identifying the best sustainable agicultural practices most suitable to
specific agro-ecological climate focusing on integrated farming.
• The scheme through its various missions will help realize the government's mission of
doubling farmers's income by 2022.
• Agrarian infrastructure like warehousing facilities, storehouses, watershed
development, rural electrification, markets etc will get impetus through the scheme.
Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
• The Union Government has introduced this scheme in January 2016. It replaced the
earlier scheme National Agriculture Insurance Scheme. The theme of the sheme is
One Nation One Scheme.
• There will be a uniform premium of 2% to be paid by farmers for all kharif crops and
1.5% for all rabi crops. In case of annual commercial and horticulture crops, the
premium to be paid by farmers will be only 5%.
• The premium rates to be paid by farmers are very low and balance premium will be
paid by the government to provide full assured amount to the farmers against crop
loss.
• There is no upper limit on government subsidy. Even if balance premium is 90%, it
will be borne by the government.
SOIL HEALTH CARD
• The Union Government launched the Soil Health Card scheme on 19 February, 2015.
• It is an attempt to check deteriorating soil quality and enhance farm productivity.
Presented by Juthika Dey # 16
 • About 100 soil testing laboratories will be set up in the next 3 years across the
country.
NATIONAL FOOD SECURITY MISSION
• It was launched in 2007-08 with an aim to ensure surplus of food production. The
NFSM is being implemented in 476 districts of 17 States.
• The mission will ensure food security in the following selected agricutlural crops:
(i) NFSM -Rice (ii) NFSM-Wheat (iii) NFSM - Pulses (iv) NESM-Coarse Pulses
(v) NFSM - Commercial Crop.
NATIONAL HORTICULTURE MISSION
• It was launched in 2005-06 for the holistic development of the horticulture sector and
improve nutritional security and income support to farm households and others. It
coves 372 districts in 18 states and 3 Union Territories.
Agriculture Export Policy, 2018
• The vision of Agriculture Export Policy is to harness the export potential of Indian
agriculture, through suitable policy instruments, to make India global power in
agriculture and raise farmers income.
Objectives of the Policy
• To double agricultural exports from present -US$ 30+ Billion to ~US$ 60+ Billion by
2022 and reach US$ 100 Billion in the next few years thereafter, with a stable trade
policy regjme.
• To diversify the export basket, destinations and boost high value and value-added
agricultural exports including a focus on perishables.
• To promote novel, indigenous, organic, ethnic, traditional and non-traditional Agri
products exports.
• To provide an institutional mechanism for pursuing market access, tackling barriers
and deal with sanitary and phytosanitary issues.
• To enable farmers to get the benefit of export opportunities in the overseas market. .
ORGANIC FARMING
• It is an agricultural practice that mainly relies on natural technique to enhance farm
production.
• The natural techniques are crop rotation, green-manure compost and biological pest
control with a minimal environmental impact.
• Government of India has been encouraging organic farming under two dedicated
schemes, namely, Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern
Region (MOVCDNER) and Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) since 2015.
• Organic farming has also been supported under other schemes viz Rashtriya Krish
Vikas Yojana (RKVY) and Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture
(MIDH), Network Project on Organic Farming under ICAR. Third party certification
of organic farming is promoted by Agriculture Processed Food and Export
Development Authority (APEDA)

Presented by Juthika Dey # 17

ONE NATION ONE RATION CARD
• The Department of Food & Public Distribution is implementing a Scheme namely
Integrated Management of Public Distribution System (IM-PDS).
• The main objective of the scheme is to introduce nationwide portability of ration card
holders under NFSA through One Nation One Ration Card System, to lift their
entitled foodgrains from any Fair Price Shop (FPS) in the country without the need to
obtain a new ration card.
• This system would largely benefit numerous migratory beneficiaries who frequently
change their place of dwelling in search of work/employment or for other reasons
across the country and eventually get deprived of their quota of subsidised foodgrains
under NFSA due to migration from their native place.
Kasturi Cotton - First Ever Brand & Logo for Indian Cotton
• On the occasion of 2nd World Cotton day (7th October, 2020) the Union Ministry of
Textiles and Women & Child Development launched the first ever Brand and Logo
for Indian Cotton.
• India's premium Cotton would be known as ‘Kasturi Cotton’ in the world cotton trade
from now onwards.
• The brand will represent Whiteness, Brightness, Softness, Purity, Luster, Uniqueness
and Indianness.
INDIAN COTTON SCENARIO
• India is the leading cotton producing country in the world, followed by the China and
the US.
• India produces about 51% of the total organic cotton production of the world, which
demonstrates India's effort towards sustainability.
• However, the yield per kgs hectare which is presently 466 kgs/ha is still lower against
the world average yield of about 762 Kgs kgs /ha.
• Cotton is also one of the most important commercial crops cultivated in India. In the
raw material consumption basket of the Indian textile industry, the proportion of
cotton is around 59%.
• It plays a major role in sustaining the livelihood of an estimated 5.8 million cotton
farmers and 40- 50 million people engaged in related activities such as cotton
processing and trade.
National Bee Keeping and Honey Mission
• Keeping in view the importance of beekeeping as part of the Integrated Farming
System in the country, government on 11th February, 2021, approved the allocation
for Rs. 500 crores for National Beekeeping & Honey Mission (NBHM) for three years
(2020-21 to 2022-23).
• Announced as part of the AtmaNirbhar Bharat scheme, NBHM aims for the overall
promotion & development of scientific beekeeping in the country to achieve the goal
of o "Sweet Revolution' which is being implemented through National Bee Board
(NBB).

Presented by Juthika Dey # 18

Certified Jute Seed Distribution Plan
• On 15th February, 2021, the Ministry of Textiles launched a Certified Jute Seed
Distribution Plan under Jute ICARE Program.
• Jute Corporation of India (JCI) had in 2019, signed an MoU (Memorandum of
Understanding) with National Seeds Corporation for commercial distribution of 1,000
Metric Tonne certified jute seeds for the year 2021-22.
• It will expand usage of certified seeds to over 55% area under Jute Cultivation.
Benefits
• It will extend the benefit of certified seeds to nearly 5 lakh farmers. Usage of certified
jute seeds has resulted in improved quality of jute by 1 grade and enhanced
productivity by 15% thereby increasing income of jute farmers by about Rs.
10,000/hectare.
1. The Government of India fixes the minimum support prices after taking into
account the recommendations of which among the following bodies?
(A) Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution
(B) Cabinet Committee of Economic Affairs
(C) Planning Commission
(D) Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices
2. Which of the following factors indicate the importance of agriculture in Indian
economy?
(A) National income and employment
(B) Industrial development and international trade
(C) Supply of foodgrains
(D) All of above
3. Which of the following is/are result of the green revolution in India?
(A) Inter-regional inequality
(B) Inter-class inequality
(C) Inter-crop inequality
(D) All of the above
4. What is the price at which the government purchases foodgrains for maintaining
the public distribution system and for building up buffer stocks are known as
(A) Minimum Support Prices
(B) Procurement Prices
(C) Issue Prices
(D) Ceiling Prices
5. Consider the following statements
1. Agriculture and allied sectors contribute more than 15% of gross domestic product
in India.

Presented by Juthika Dey # 19

 2. Share in total employment by agriculture is as high as 48.9%.Which of the
statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(A) Only 1
(B) Only 2
(C) Both 1 and 2
(D) Neither 1 nor 2
6. In which of the following five years plans was the National Floriculture Mission
launched?
(A) Ninth five year plan
(B) Tenth five year plan
(C) Eleventh five year plan
(D) None of these
7. The National Food Security Mission (NFSM) aims to enhance the production of
1. Rice 2. Wheat 3. Pulses 4. Coarse Cereals 5. Vegetables
(A) 2, 3 and 4 (B)125 (C)123 (D)1234
8. Which of the following is a sub scheme of Bringing Green Revolution to eastern
India?
(A) National Mission on Agriculture Extension and Technology
(B) National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
(C) Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna
(D) It is not a sub-scheme
9. Consider the following statements about the National Agricultural Insurance
Scheme (NAIS)
1. The Scheme has been implemented from Rabi 19992000 season
2. The scheme is available to non-loanee farmers only
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(A) Only 1 (B) Only 2 (C) Both 1 and 2 (D) Neither 1 nor 2
10. Which of the following is not a facilitator of Green Revolution in India by?
(A) Nationalisation of Banks
(B) Improvement in dairy sector growth
(C) Mechanization of Agriculture
(D) Priority Sector Lendings
Land Reforms
• Land reform refers to institutional measures directed towards altering the existing
pattern of ownership, tenancy and management of land.

Presented by Juthika Dey # 20

 • Land Reform includes measures and policies relating to redistribution of land,
regulation of rent, improving the conditions of tenancy, cooperative organisation,
agricultural education, and so on.
Major Goals and Objectives of Land Reforms
• Elimination of exploitation in land relation
• Restructuring of agrarian relations to achieve an egalitarian structure.
• Actualization of the goal of land to the tiller.
• Increasing agricultural production and productivity
• Infusion of a great measure of equality in local institutions.
• Improvements of socio-economic conditions of the rural poor .
Scope and Dimensions of Land Reforms
• Increased agricultural growth and productivity and thus enhanced farmers income due
to land reforms is directly related to rural poverty reduction.
• Increased access to land for the poor landless masses by the redistribution of land
ensures them an income guarantee.
• Land reform leads to increased rural agricultural wages that help in ensuring more
income to the rural landless labourers and thus crucial to rural poverty reduction.
• Regulation of rents gives some security to the tenants.
• Abolition of intermediaries strengthens the position of the actual landholders and
cultivators that help them to enhance their social and economic stature.
Land Reforms in India
• Prior to Independence, revenue collection there were three major systems of land.
Zamindari System, Mahalwari System and Ryotwari System.
• Zamindari System introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793 in province of Bengal
through permanent settlement fixed the land rights of zamindars without any
provision for fixed rents or occupancy rights for actual cultivators. Zamindars were
more interested in higher rent than agricultural improvement.
• Ryotwari System was prevalent in the provinces of Madras and Bombay. Each Ryot
was recognised by law as proprietor with the right to transfer or mortgage his land.
• Mahalwari system was introduced in Central province, North-West Frontier Agra,
Punjab, Gangetic valley etc. In this system land was divided into mahals ownership
rights were vested with peasants. In parts of United Province and Punjab, Mahalwari
system prevailed with the entire village commonly. Each peasant of the village was to
contribute total revenue demand of the village on the basis of size of holding.
The adverse effect of land lordism on agricultural production were mostly felt in the states of
UP, Bihar, West Bengal and Odisha, other states under Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems also
witnessed growth of large number of intermediaries with all it's adverse impacts.

Presented by Juthika Dey # 21

Land Reforms Post Independence
A. Legislative Land Reforms

Abolition of Intermediaries Land Ceilings & Distribution

Tenancy Reforms Consolidation of Land Holdings

Protection of Triballands .
B. Land Reforms through Social Movements
• Bhoodan Movement
• Gramdan Movement
• Post Independence it became necessary to undertake land reform measures for
removing the feudal character of the agrarian economic and paving way for rapid
agricultural growth with social justice.
• Bhoodan movement was launched in 1951, immediately after the peasant uprising in
Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh followed by Gramdan movement in 1957.
• Objective of these movements was to persuade landowners and lease holders in each
concerned village to renounce their
their land rights. All the land would become the
property of a village association for the egalitarian redistribution and for purpose of
joint cultivation (cooperative farming).
Abolishment of Intermediaries
• A major cause of stagnation in the agriculture economy
economy to a large extent was due to
exploitative agrarian relations.
• Intermediaries like Zamindars, patronised and promoted by the British government
proved to be the chief instrument of exploitation.
• About 60% of the area under cultivation was under the Zamindari
Zamindari system on the eve
of the Independence.
• The States took the task of abolishing the intermediaries like Zamindars by passing
various legislations.

Presented by Juthika Dey # 22

 • The government estimates state that in total during first four Five years Plan, 173
million acres of land was acquired from the intermediaries and 20 million tenants
were given land to cultivate.
• Abolition of intermediaries is generally agreed to be one component of land reforms
that have been relatively successful.
• Zamindari Abolition Act was passed by UP, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, etc.
Surplus lands were confiscated from zamindars. As in Golaknath case of 1967, the
Supreme court ruled that the provisions of Zamindari Abolition contradicted with
Article 31 of the Indian Constitution, the parliament took steps to repeal Article 31.
Later, Land Ceilings Act was passed by different states.
• Landowners naturally resisted the implementation of these reforms through political
influence and deploying measures like evasion and coercion, through Benami
Transfers which included registering their own land under names of different relatives
to bypass the ceiling, and shifting tenants around different plots of land, so that they
would not acquire incumbency rights as stipulated in the tenancy law.
• The success of land reform has been driven by the political will of specific state
administrations, the notable achievers being the left-wing administrations in Kerala
and West Bengal.
• The state of Kerala banned agricultural tenancy altogether without having any
exception. Although, States like Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Haryana did not ban
tenancy as such. But tenants after continuous possession of land for certain specified
years, acquired the right of purchase of the land they cultivated.
Tenancy Reforms
• To protect the tenants at will and subtenants, the tenancy reforms were passed by the
various state governments.
Tenancy reforms measures
• Regulation of rent
• Security of tenure
• Ownership rights of tenants
Regulation of Rents
• Under the British Government, the rents charged was highly exploitative with no
sound economics behind it.
• These highly exploitative rents spelt high misery on the tenants and trapped them into
vicious circles of debt and poverty.
• To provide relief to the tenants from exploitative rents, the Indian government after
independence passed legislations to regulate the rents (maximum limits on rent was
fixed) and to reduce the miseries of the tenants.
Security of Tenure
• To protect the tenants from arbitrary evictions and to grant them permanent rights
over land, legislations had been passed in most states.
• Legislations passed by the States has three essential aims; Evictions must not take
place except in accordance with the provisions of law; Land may be resumed by the

Presented by Juthika Dey # 23

 owner, if at all, for the Personal Cultivation only; In the event of land taken by the
owner, the tenant is assured of a prescribed minimum area.
• However, the vague definitions of Tenants Personal Cultivation and landowner under
the law made it difficult to implement the tenancy reforms.
Ownership Rights of Tenants
• It has been repeatedly emphasised by the government, that the ownership rights of the
land should be conferred to the actual cultivator
• Accordingly, most states have passed legislations to transfer ownership rights to the
tenants.
Tenants in India
A. Occupancy Tenants: They enjoy permanent right over land and cannot be evicted
easily
B. Tenants at will. They do not enjoy any right over land and can be evicted bythe
landlords anytime.
• However, the success of the states in conferring the rights to the tenants varied widely.
• Some states like West Bengal, Kerala and Karnataka, has performed exceptionally
well in this regard.
• In West Bengal due to the Operation Barga maximum sharecroppers were given
ownership of land.
Land Ceilings
• Land Ceiling on agriculture land means a statutory maximum limit on the quantity of
land which an individual may hold.
• The objective of land ceiling was to promote economic growth with social justice.
• Major aspects of Land Cellings
A. Ceiling on future acquisitions
B. Ceilings on existing land holdings
By 1961-62, ceiling legislation had been passed in all the States. The levels vary from State
to State and are different for food and cash crops. In Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal for
example, the ceiling on existing holding is 40 acres and 25 acres. In Punjab, it ranges from 27
acres to 100 acres, in Rajasthan 22 acres to 236 acres and in Madhya Pradesh 25 acres to 75
acre
Cooperative farming
• is advocated to solve the problem of sub-divisions of land holdings.
• idea was to make farming profitable for small and marginal farmers having small
pieces of land.
• Under Co-operative Farming set up farmers having very small holdings came together
and joined hands to pool their lands for the purpose of cultivation.
• Pooling of farms helped in increasing production, and the farmers can have more
produce to sell in the markets after taking out their subsistence need.

Presented by Juthika Dey # 24

 • Cooperative farming also helps in mechanisation ofagriculture as the owner of the
multiple small farms can pool their money to buy a mechanical tractor or other
equipments which they could not afford otherwise.
• It refers to the farming practices where farming operations are conducted
cooperatively by merging small individual land holding into a common unit.
• Individuals retain their ownership of respective plots of land and distribute the farm
income among the members on the basis of the size and value of the plot along with
other contributions.
• In India, majority of land holdings are too small. About 76.4% of the total holdings in
India are below the size of 2 hectares and on these 28.8% of total operated area is
engaged into small and marginal holdings.
Digitisation of Land Records
• Digitising and geo-tagging of land records and linking them with Aadhar and the bank
accounts of farmers will create a centralised, transparent and easily accessible land
records system.
• It can then help any class of farmers operating a piece of land to access bank credit
and crop insurance.
• Only three states-- Odisha, Sikkim and Tripura have completed 100% computerisation
of land records. Many others have computerised 80-95% of their land records.
• Andhra Pradesh's Land Licensed Cultivators Act has provided suitable channels to
deliver loans, subsidies, crop insurance and relief support. It does so by issuing
eligibility cards to tenants, who raise crops with the explicit or implied permission of
the owners.
• Kerala's Kudumbashree initiative is directed towards poverty eradication and women
empowerment.
• They then cultivate leased land with assured access to agricultural credit from
NABARD and other banking institutions.
Causes for failure of Land Reforms in India
• Benami Transfers
Transfer of land to family members. In order to circumvent the ceiling laws, zamindars
transferred land to their family members.
• Land as a symbol of social prestige in India
People have emotional attachments with the land in India and it is not considered merely an
economic asset unlike in other countries.
• Lack of Political Will
Under the pressure and directions of large farmers governments were not interested in
implementing the legislation enacted.
• Shortfalls in the Ceiling Laws
Levels of ceiling among different states and within different areas of the same state differed
noticeably, which created confusions and frequent disputes.

Presented by Juthika Dey # 25