METAL FORMING AND HEAT TREATMENT

METAL FORMING
Metal Forming Metal forming is also known as mechanical working of metals. Metal forming
operations are frequently desirable either to produce a new shape or to improve the properties of
the metal. Shaping in the solid state may be divided into non-cutting shaping such as forging,
rolling, pressing, etc., and cutting shaping such as the machining operations performed on
various machine tools. Non-cutting or non-machining shaping processes are referred to as
mechanical working processes. It means an intentional and permanent deformation of metals
plastically beyond the elastic range of the material. The main objectives of metal working
processes are to provide the desired shape and size, under the action of externally applied forces
in metals. Such processes are used to achieve optimum mechanical properties in the metal and
reduce any internal voids or cavities present and thus make the metal dense. Metals are
commonly worked by plastic deformation because of the beneficial effect that is imparted to the
mechanical properties by it. The necessary deformation in a metal can be achieved by application
of mechanical force only or by heating the metal and then applying a small force. The impurities
present in the metal are thus get elongated with the grains and in the process get broken and
dispersed throughout the metal. This also decreases the harmful effect of the impurities and
improves the mechanical strength. This plastic deformation of a metal takes place when the stress
caused in the metal, due to the applied forces reaches the yield point.
Plasticity is the ability of material to undergo some degree of permanent deformation without
rupture or failure. Plastic deformation will take place only after the elastic range has been
exceeded. Such property of material is important in forming, shaping, extruding and many other
hot and cold working processes. Materials such as clay, lead, etc. are plastic at room temperature
and steel is plastic at forging temperature. This property generally increases with increase in
temperature.
Ductility is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the application of
tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic. The ductility is usually measured
by the terms percentage elongation and percent reduction in area often used as empirical
measures of ductility. The ductile material commonly used in engineering practice in order of
diminishing ductility are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.
Malleability is the ability of the material to be flattened into thin sheets without cracking by hot
or cold working. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong. The
malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice in order of diminishing malleability
are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium. Aluminium, copper, tin, lead, steel, etc.
are recognized as highly malleable metals.
1.1 Definition of Heat Treatment
Heat treatment may be defined as an operation or combination of operations that involves the
heating and cooling of a solid metal or alloy for the purpose of obtaining certain desirable
conditions ^ or properties. It is usually desired to preserve, as "I nearly as possible, the form,
dimensions, and m surface of the piece being treated.
Objective
 To increase strength, hardness, and wear resistance (bulk hardening, surface hardening)
 To increase ductility and softness (Tempering, Recrystallization Annealing)
 To increase toughness (Tempering, Recrystallization annealing)
 To obtain fine grain size (Recrystallization annealing, Full annealing, Normalizing)
 To remove internal stresses induced by differential deformation by cold working,
nonuniform cooling from high temperature during casting and welding (Stress relief
annealing)
 To improve machinability (Full annealing and Normalizing)
 To improve cutting properties of tool steels (Hardening and Tempering)
 To improve surface properties (surface hardening, high-temperature resistance Objective
 To improve surface properties (surface hardening, high-temperature resistance
precipitation hardening, surface treatment)
 To improve electrical properties (Recrystallization, Tempering, Age hardening)
 To improve magnetic properties (Hardening, Phase transformation)

1.2 Heat Treatment and its Application

Applications of Heat Treating
The most common application of heat treatment is metallurgical. Heat treatment is also utilized
in the manufacture of many materials like glass. The following are also areas of application of
heat treatment.

 Automobiles
 Aerospace
 Computers
 Metal Working
 Machinery
 Construction
Benefits of Heat Treating
Heat treatment can:

 Soften a metal or plastic by the process of annealing

 Harden a metal through case hardening, hardening, Nitriding, carburizing
 Harden or soften just one area of a metal part through induction hardening
 Homogenize plastic parts that are injection molded through annealing
 Remove stress from extruded, formed, bent or cut material through stress relief
 Add resilience to a metal
 Change the magnetic permeability
Heat treating can change or improve the properties of a metal including:
 Strength
 Hardness
 Ductility
 Toughness
 Wear resistance
 Elasticity
 Magnetism
Heat treatment improves workability and machinability:
By removing internal stresses, heat treating increases manufacturability. For example, if a metal
is too hard to bend or machine, it can be stress relieved or annealed to decrease the hardness. If a
plastic deforms after machining, it can be annealed or stress relieved to keep it from deforming.
Induction flame heat treating can soften just one area of a part, and the rest of the part is left
unchanged.

Heat treatment improves wear resistance and durability:

Wear resistance of a part can be improved by heat treating through the process of hardening.
Metals can be hardened on the surface or all around to make them stronger, more durable,
tougher, and more resistant to wear.

Heat treatment improves strength and toughness:

Toughness and strength are a trade-off, as the strength is increased, the toughness may decrease
causing brittleness. Heat treating can specifically affect tensile strength, yield strength, and
fracture toughness. Case hardening increases strength, however, the parts will need some
tempering or drawn back to decrease brittleness. The amount of tempering is determined by the
required ultimate strength desired in the material.

Heat treatment improves magnetic properties:

Most materials like 1008 or 316, tend to gain magnetism when they are work hardened. If a
special annealing process is used, the magnetic permeability is reduced, which is especially
important if the part is going to be used in an environment that is electronic.

AN OVERVIEW OF IMPORTANT HEAT TREATMENTS

A broad classification of heat treatments possible are given below. Many more specialized
treatments or combinations of these are possible.

PHASE DIAGRAMS
Microstructure and Phase Transformations in Multicomponent Systems
 Definitions and basic concepts
 Phases and microstructure
 Binary isomorphous systems (complete solid solubility)
 Binary eutectic systems (limited solid solubility)
 Binary systems with intermediate phases/compounds
 The iron-carbon system (steel and cast iron)
Definitions: Components and Phases
Component - chemically recognizable species (Fe and C in carbon steel, H2O and Sucrose in
sugar solution in water). A binary alloy contains two components, a ternary alloy – three, etc.
Phase – a portion of a system that has uniform physical and chemical characteristics. Two
distinct phases in a system have distinct physical and/or chemical characteristics (e.g. water and
ice, water and oil) and are separated from each other by definite phase boundaries. A phase may
contain one or more components.
A single-phase system is called homogeneous, systems with two or more phases are mixtures or
heterogeneous systems.

Definitions: Solubility Limit

Solvent - host or major component in solution, solute - minor component.
Solubility Limit of a component in a phase is the maximum amount of the component that can
be dissolved in it (e.g. alcohol has unlimited solubility in water, sugar has a limited solubility, oil
is insoluble). The same concepts apply to solid phases: Cu and Ni are mutually soluble in any
amount (unlimited solid solubility), while C has a limited solubility in Fe.

Microstructure
The properties of an alloy depend not only on proportions of the phases but also on how they are
arranged structurally at the microscopic level. Thus, the microstructure is specified by the
number of phases, their proportions, and their arrangement in space.
Equilibrium and Metastable States
A system is at equilibrium if at constant temperature, pressure and composition the system is
stable, not changing with time. Equilibrium is the state that is achieved given sufficient time. But
the time to ac\+hieve equilibrium may be very long (the kinetics can be slow) that a state along
the path to the equilibrium may appear to be stable. This is called a metastable state.
In thermodynamics the equilibrium is described as a state of a system that corresponds to the
minimum of thermodynamic function called the free energy. Thermodynamics tells us that:
Equilibrium and Metastable States
 Under conditions of a constant temperature and pressure and composition, the direction
of any spontaneous change is toward a lower free energy.
 The state of stable thermodynamic equilibrium is the one with minimum free energy.
 A system at a metastable state is trapped in a local minimum of free energy that is not the
global one.

TRANSFORMATION TEMPERATURES
If a molten sample of pure molten were allowed to cool slowly and the temperature of the iron
were measured at regular intervals, an idealized (equilibrium) time-temperature plot of the data
would appear as shown in figure below. The discontinuities (temperature arrests) in this curve are
caused by physical changes in the iron. The first arrest at 2,800° F marks the temperature at
which the iron freezes. The other arrests (known as transformation temperatures or critical
points) mark temperatures at which certain internal changes take place in the solid iron. Some of
these temperatures are very important in the heat treatment of steel. The atoms in all solid metals
are arranged in some definite geometric (or crystallographic) pattern. The atoms in iron,
immediately after freezing, are arranged in what is termed the body centered cubic system.
Figure 1. Idealized cooling curve for pure iron.
In this crystal structure the unit cell consists of a cube with an iron atom at each of the eight
corners and another in the center (fig. 2, a). Each of the many individual grains (crystals) of
which the solid metal is composed is built up of a very large number of these unit cells, all
oriented alike in the same grain. This high-temperature form of iron is known as delta (5) iron.

Figure 2. Crystal structure of iron. (a) Body-centered cubic (alpha and delta iron); (b) Face-
centered cubic (gamma iron).

At 2,550° F (the A4 point), iron undergoes an allotropic transformation (fig. 1); that is, the
arrangement of the atoms in the crystal changes. The new crystal structure is face-centered cubic,
and the unit cell again consists of a cube with an iron atom at each of the eight corners, but with
an iron atom in the center of each of the six faces instead of one in the center of the cube (fig. 2,
b). This form is known as gamma (7) iron. At 1,670° F (the A3 point), h-on undergoes another
allotropic transformation and reverts to the body centered cubic system (fig. 2, a). This structure,
which is crystallographically the same as delta iron, is stable at all temperatures below the A3
point and is known as alpha (a) iron (fig. 5, A). The arrest at 1,420° F (known as the A2 point) is
not caused by an allotropic change, that is, a change in crystal structure. It marks the temperature
at which iron becomes ferromagnetic and is therefore termed the magnetic transition. Above this
temperature iron is nonmagnetic. These various temperature arrests on cooling are caused by
evolutions of heat. On heating, the arrests occur in reverse order and are caused by absorption of
heat. The critical points may be detected also by sudden changes in other physical properties, for
instance, expansivity or electrical conductivity.

ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION
The course of transformation of austenite when the steel is quenched to and held at various
constant elevated temperature levels (isothermal, transformation) is conveniently shown by a
diagram known as the S-curve (also termed the TTT diagram—for time, temperature, and
transformation). Such a diagram for eutectoid carbon steel is shown in figure 8 and the
discussion of this figure will be confined to steel of this particular composition.

A. TO PEARLITE
Austenite containing 0.80 percent of carbon, cooled quickly to and held at 1,300° F, does not
begin to decompose (transform) until after about15 min, and does not completely decompose
until after about 5 hr (fig. 8). Thus, at temperatures just below the Aci, austenite is stable for a
considerable length of time. The product of the decomposition of austenite at this temperature is
coarse pearlite of relatively low hardness. If the austenite is quickly cooled to and held at a some-
what lower temperature, say 1,200° F, decomposition begins in about 5 sec and is completed
after about 30 sec, the resultant pearlite being finer and harder than that formed at 1,300° F. At a
temperature of about 1,050° F, the austenite decomposes extremely rapidly, only about 1 sec
elapsing before the transformation starts and 5 sec before it is completed. The resultant pearlite is
extremely fine and its hardness is relatively high. This region of the S-curve where
decomposition of austenite to fine pearlite proceeds so rapid!}' is termed the "nose" of the curve.
Figure 8. Isothermal transformation diagram (S-curve) for eutecioid carbon steel.
about 30 sec, the resultant pearlite being finer and harder than that formed at 1,300° F. At a
temperature of about 1,050° F, the austenite decomposes extremely rapidly, only about 1 sec
elapsing before the transformation starts and 5 sec before it is completed. The resultant pearlite is
extremely fine and its hardness is relatively high. This region of the S-curve where
decomposition of austenite to fine pearlite proceeds so rapidly is termed the "nose" of the curve.

B. TO BAINITE
If the austenite is cooled unchanged to temperatures below the nose of the S-curve (1,050° F),
the time for its decomposition begins to increase (fig. 8). The final product of decomposition
now is not pearlite, but a new acicular constituent called bainite (fig. 15, E) possessing unusual
toughness with hardness even greater than that of very fine pearlite. Depending on the
temperature, then, a certain finite interval of time is necessary before austenite starts to transform
into either pearlite or bainite. Additional time is necessary before the transformations are
completed.

C. TO MARTENSITE
If the austenite is cooled unchanged to relatively low temperatures (below about 430° F for the
eutectoid carbon steel under consideration), partial transformation takes place instantaneously;
the product of transformation is martensite. Austenite transforms into martensite over a
temperature range and the amount that transforms is a function of the temperature. Only minute
amounts will so transform at about 430° F; practically all of the austenite will be transformed at
about 175° F. The beginning of this trans- formation range is termed the 2vlg (martensite— start)
and the end of the range is termed the Ms (martensite—finish). As long as the temperature is held
constant within the Ms – Mf range, that portion of the austenite that does not transform
instantaneously to martensite remains untransformed for a considerable length of time,
eventually transforming to bainite. In ordinary heat treatment of the plain carbon steels, austenite
does not transform into bainite. Transformation of the austenite takes place either above or at the
nose of the S-curve, forming pearlite, or in passing through the Ms—Mf range, forming
martensite, or both. It is evident that in order for austenite to be transformed entirely into
martensite, it must be cooled sufficiently rapidly so that the temperature of the steel is lowered
past the nose of the S-curve in less time than is necessary for transformation to start at this
temperature. If this is not accomplished, part of the steel trans- forms into pearlite at the high
temperature (Ai-'), and the remainder transforms into martensite at the low temperature (Ar" or
Ms—Mf temperature range). This explains the phenomenon of the split transformation described
previously.

ALLOYS OF IRON AND CARBON

The properties of iron are affected very markedly by additions of carbon. It should be realized
that in discussing iron-carbon alloys, we actually are dealing with plain carbon steels and cast
irons.

PHASE DIAGRAM
Phase diagram is a graphical representation of all the equilibrium phases as a function of
temperature, pressure, and composition. For one component systems, the equilibrium state of the
system is defined by two independent parameters (P and T), (T and V), or (P and V).

IRON-CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM

The versatility of steel depends on its different properties, imparted through suitable alloying and
appropriate heat treatment measures. The mechanical properties of steel depend chiefly on its
microstructure. The microstructure of steel can be advantageously changed by heat treatment to
obtain the desired mechanical properties.
Many steels owe their special properties to the presence of certain alloying elements. Carbon is
the most important element controlling the properties of all steels. When iron is alloyed with
carbon, the transformation that takes place over a temperature range is related to the carbon
content. According to the conditions under which an iron-carbon alloy is formed, carbon is
present either in solution or in the elementary form of graphite, or in combination as iron carbide
(Fe3C). The diagram which depicts the temperatures at which phase changes occur during very
slow cooling or heating, and in relation to the carbon content, is called the iron-carbon phase
diagram. This diagram is the basis for a correct understanding of all heat treatment operations.
Figure 1.4 illustrates the ironcarbon phase diagram which includes the whole range of iron-
carbon alloys, namely carbon-less iron, carbon-steel and cast irons. The carbon varies from zero
to about 6 percent.
Fig. 1.4 Thermal equilibrium diagram for iron-iron carbide alloys
Figure 1.5 illustrates the various microstructures appropriate to that part of the ironcarbon
diagram which applies to the heat treatment of steels. Steels are iron alloys with relatively low
carbon (up to about 2% carbon) by weight. Alloys with carbon above this level are generally
classified as cast irons
Fig. 1.5 Steel portion of iron

HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS

All heat-treating operation consist of subjecting a metal to a definite time-temperature cycle, '
which may be divided into three parts:
(1) Heating,
(2) holding at temperature (soaking), and'
(3) cooling.
Individual cases vary, but certain fundamental objectives may be stated. The rate of heating is not
particularly important unless a steel is in a highly stressed condition, such as is imparted by
severe cold working or prior hardening. In such instances the rate of heating should be slow.
Frequently this is impracticable, since furnaces may be at operating temperatures, but placing the
cold steel in the hot furnace may cause distortion or even cracking. This danger can be in
minimized by the use of a preheating furnace maintained at a temperature below the A 1. The
steel, preheated for a sufficient period, then can be transferred to the furnace at operating
temperature. This procedure is also advantageous when treating steels having considerable
variations in section thickness or very low thermal conductivity. The object of holding a steel at
heat-treating temperature is to assure uniformity of temperature throughout its entire volume.
Obviously, thin sections need not be soaked as long as thick sections, but if different thicknesses
exist in the same piece, the period required to heat the thickest section uniformly governs the
time at temperature. A rule frequently used is to soak ½ hr/in of thickness.
The structure and properties of a steel depend upon its rate of cooling and this, in turn, is
governed by such factors as mass, quenching media, etc. It must be realized that the thicker the
section, the slower will be the rate of cooling regardless of the method of cooling used except in
such operations as induction hardening to be discussed later.

Figure 10. Influence of carbon on the start of the martensite (Ms) transformation of high-purity
iron-carbon alloys.

ANNEALING
Annealing is a process involving heating and cooling, usually applied to produce softening. The
term also refers to treatments intended to alter mechanical or physical properties, produce a
definite microstructure, or remove gases. The temperature of the operation and the rate of
cooling depend upon the material being annealed and the purpose of the treatment.
Full Annealing
Full annealing is a softening process in which a steel is heated to a temperature above the trans-
formation range (Acs) and, after being held for a sufficient time at this temperature, is cooled
slowly to a temperature below the transformation range (Ar1). The steel is ordinarily allowed to
cool slowly in the furnace, although it may be removed and cooled in some medium such as
mica, lime, or ashes, that insures a slow rate of cooling.
Since the transformation temperatures are affected by the carbon content, it is apparent that the
higher carbon steels can be fully annealed at lower temperatures than the lower carbon steels. In
terms of the diagram shown in figure 4, steels must be heated to above the Ime GOSK. The
temperature range normally used for full annealing is 25 to 50 deg F above this line (the upper
critical), as shown in figure 11.

Figure 11. Recommended temperature ranges for heat treating plain carbon steels.
The microstructures of the hypoeutectoid steels that result after full annealing are quite similar to
those shown for the equilibrium conditions (fig. 5, B and C). Eutectoid and hypereutectoid steels
frequently spheroidize partially or completely on full annealing (see later section and fig. 12, D).
B. PROCESS ANNEALING
Process annealing, frequently termed stress relief annealing, is usually applied to cold-worked
low carbon steels (up to about 0.25% of carbon) to soften the steel sufficiently to allow further
coldworking. The steel is usually heated close to, but below, the Aci temperature (fig. 11). If the
steel is not to be further cold-worked, but relief of internal stresses is desired, a lower range of
temperature will suffice (about 1,000° F). Rate of cooling is immaterial. This type of anneal will
cause recrystallization and softening of the cold-worked ferrite grains, but usually will not affect
the relatively small amounts of cold-worked pearlite. Typical structures of cold-worked, process-
annealing, and fully annealed low-carbon steel are shown in figure 12, A, B, and C, respectively.
Figure 12. Representative microstructures of carbon steels.
STRESS RELIEF ANNEALING
Stress relieving is a heat treatment process that helps to remove the internal stresses caused to the
metal when it is machined, cast, rolled, or forged. It typically involves placing the metal into a
set temperature for a certain amount of time. Then the metal is cooled using a controlled method.

Stress relieving must be done carefully to remove the stresses without impacting the metal’s
properties that should be kept for the part. This treatment can be done for both ferrous and non-
ferrous metals. There are different types of stress relieving treatments. One such treatment is
called annealing.

HOMOGENIZING ANNEALING

Homogenization annealing is annealing at very high temperatures keeping the temperature for a
long period and any subsequent cooling.

The purpose of this treatment is to achieve regular material structures (s. Structure), i.e.
compensating concentration differences in the work piece. However, it must be noted that it is
not possible to compensate structure differences in the work piece but only in individual crystals
(s. Crystallite).

The side effects which occur in this process include a high degree of scaling and marginal
decarburization which can be avoided by working with Shielding gas or in a Vacuum, as well as
intensive grain growth which must be rectified by additional heat treatment.

SUB-CRITICAL ANNEALING
Sub-critical annealing consists of heating the steel to below the lower critical temperature. This
type of annealing is mainly carried out in the temperature range 630° – 700°C to
reduce hardness by allowing recrystallisation of the microstructure to occur. Alternatively, if a
temperature in the range 690°C to 719°C is used, it is possible to spheroidise
the cementite phase instead of forming lamellar pearlite consisting of platelets of ferrite and
cementite. This technique is particularly useful with high carbon steels to optimize
machinability.

The lower temperature sub-critical annealing treatments (550° – 600°C), are specifically used for
stress relief of welded fabrications and to stabilize rough machined components which are to be
ultimately hardened and tempered, case hardened, or nitride and whose dimensional stability is
critical.

ISOTHERMAL ANNEALING Isothermal annealing is derived from the exact knowledge of

temperature-time diagrams. This type of annealing is useful for softening steels forthe
subsequent machining operations. This treatment consists of austenitizing the steel at the normal
annealing temperature (full annealing) and then cooling rapidly to the appropriate tenperature
below lr1, usually about 50-60'c below z4r1 (isothermal holding in pearlite range). ihi, t"rp.rature
is held for a predetermined time (Fig.2.4), enabling the complete austenite decornposition to take
place for producing a structure having optimum machinability. After the transformation is
complete' the steel is cooled in a furnace, or air-cooled, or rapidly cooled. There is no
metallurgical reason for slow cooling during the change from the austenitizing to the
transformation temperature, or after the transformation iJ compreted. The hardness obtained after
isothermal annealing dependstn holding the steel below Art.rf the steel after austenitizing is held
just below Air, it will decompose slowly. The product then may contain relatively coarse
spheroid carbides or coarse lamellar pearlite depending on the austenitizing temperature. This
product tends to be very sort. At transformation temperature the austenite generaily decomposes
more rapidly, and the resultant product is harder, more lamellar, and less coarse than the product
from just below Arr. Alloy case-hardening steels are normally subjected to isothermal annealing.
After carburising the steels at 900-930'C, they are held at 630-680'C for 2-4 hours for the
completion of austenite transformation and then cooled. The structure obtained consists ol ferrite
and pearlite, suitable for most machining operations. Usually, isothermal holding is extended
beyond the end of transformation for 1-2 hours. So, additional improvement of machinability is
obtained as a consequence of partial spheroidization of pearlitic cementite, lsothermal annealing
is best suited for applications in which full advantage can be taken of the rapid cooling to the
transformation temperature. The cooling is continued from this temperature to the room
temperature.

HOMOGENIZING

This process is carried out in the temperature range ll00-1200"C (Fig.2.6). The diffusion which
takes place at this temperature equalizes the composition of steels. This process is adopted to
alloy steel ingots which, when solidified after pouring, have an inhomogeneous structure. This
lack of structural homogeneity is removed to a large extent during forging and rolling of steel
ingots. Where homogeneity has not been effected completely, the structural homogeneity is to be
corrected by homogenizing or diffusional annealing treatment. In this case, the phenomenon of
diffusion brings about a uniform concentration of primary grains. The homogenizing treatment is
carried out for several hours at temperatures between 1150-1200"C. After the treatment. the
charge is cooled to 800-850"C, and then further cooled in air. After this treatment, the steel may
undergo either normalizing or annealing to refine the over-heated structure. This treatment is
applied only in very special cases, since the treatment cost is very high.

Fig. 2,6 Diagram representing homogenizing operation

HARDENING

Hardening is a heat-treating operation necessary to impart hardness to any component. This

treatment consists of heating the steel to a selected hardening temperature (austenitizing
temperature), and holding it at this temperature, followed by cooling or quenching at a rate fast
enough to develop the desired hardness (Fig.2.10). When the steel is austenitized, its lattice
structure is a face-centered cubic. The reason for heating and holding the steel in the austenite
range is to dissolve carbides cementite into a matrix; then the steel is quenched. At this stage, the
trapped carbon causes a shift in atoms to form a body-centered tetragonal structure. The shift of
atoms and the trapped carbon creates a stressed lattice structure. This stressed structure, called
martensite, is hard and brittle. It is responsible for the high hardness of the steel. The hardness
finally achieved depends on how much carbon was available, how much of this was dissolved,
the temperature adopted (Fig.2.ll) and the rate of cooling. It is subsequently tempered to reduce
the induced quenching stresses caused by the formation of martensite. The main object of
hardening is to develop high hardness and to increase the wear life of parts. The higher the
hardness, the higher will be the wear resistance of the components. For example, spindles, gears,
shafts, tools and dies, high speed steel tools, etc., need high hardness. It is also necessary for
structural steels to have the required mechanical properties such as tensile strength, ductility,
elasticity, etc. These properties can be obtained by hardening, followed by tempering. Hardened
and tempered components possess better mechanical properties compared to the annealed and
normalized components. Since hardening is the last operation, the component is almost close to
the finished state. Hence, it should not be attempted without proper equipment, facilities and
suitably trained operators. The hardening temperature for specific grades of steels, obtained on
the basis of a series of practical trials, is given in the manuals of most steel manufacturers.
Recommended practices giving ranges of hardening temperature relevant to steels, listed in
international standards, may also be adopted.

Fig. 2.10 Schematic representation of heating, quenching and tempering processes of tool steels.
Fig. 2.11 Hardness obtained at different hardening temperatures AISI-Hl3 Steels

METHODS OF QUENCHTNG

After the component is held at the hardening temperature for a desired length of time, it is taken
out for cooling, or quenching, in order to obtain a hard martensite structure. The rate of cooling
must be controlled, so that the formation of soft pearlite or bainite is prevented. The medium
used for quenching depends upon the chemical composition of the steel, the hardness required,
permissible degree of distortion and the complexity of the component. Water, oil, brine, molten
salt and polymer quenchants are some of the quenching media in use. The grade of steel, section
thickness, distortion allowed and the properties to be imparted to the component govern the
method to be adopted. The various quenching methods are:

1. Direct quenching
2. Martempering
3. Austempering
4. Delay quenching
5. Time quenching
6. Die quenching

JOINING-END-QUENCH (JEQ
The Joining-End-Quench (JEQ) test is a method used to evaluate the hardenability of steels,
particularly those used in welding applications. It assesses how well a steel alloy can be welded
without experiencing brittle fracture during subsequent quenching.
Here's a detailed description of the JEQ test process:
1. Sample Preparation
- The test specimen is typically a small cylindrical or rectangular sample, often obtained from the
weld region or heat-affected zone (HAZ) of a welded component.
- The specimen is machined to standard dimensions and prepared for welding.

2. Welding
- The specimen is welded using the specific welding process intended for the application.
- Care is taken to ensure that welding parameters, such as heat input and welding speed, are
controlled to simulate typical welding conditions.

3. Heat Treatment
- After welding, the specimen undergoes a controlled heat treatment process, which involves
heating to a specific temperature and then rapidly cooling (quenching) to room temperature.
- The heating temperature and cooling rate are critical parameters in the JEQ test, as they mimic
the thermal cycles experienced during welding and subsequent quenching in real-world
applications.

4. Metallographic Examination
- After heat treatment, the specimen is sectioned and prepared for metallographic examination.
- Metallographic analysis involves polishing, etching, and examining the microstructure of the
specimen using optical or electron microscopy.
- The microstructure reveals information about the distribution of phases, grain size, and any
potential defects or discontinuities introduced during welding and heat treatment.

5. Evaluation
- The JEQ test evaluates the hardenability of the steel by assessing the microstructure and
identifying any regions susceptible to brittle fracture.
- Common criteria for evaluation include the presence of martensite, the extent of
transformation, and the occurrence of cracks or other defects.
- The test results provide insights into the weldability and post-welding behavior of the steel
alloy, helping engineers optimize welding procedures and select appropriate materials for
specific applications.

Overall, the Joining-End-Quench test is a valuable tool in the assessment of weldability and the
determination of the suitability of steel alloys for welding applications, particularly in industries
where high-performance welded components are critical, such as aerospace, automotive, and
construction.
The term "limiting ruling section" refers to the minimum thickness or section size of a material
that can be effectively hardened or quenched during heat treatment processes, such as through
hardening or quenching and tempering. It's a critical parameter in understanding the
hardenability of a material, which is its ability to achieve full hardness throughout its entire
cross-section upon quenching. Here's a breakdown of the concept: Heat Treatment and
Hardenability: During heat treatment processes like quenching, materials are heated to a specific
temperature and then rapidly cooled to alter their mechanical properties. Hardenability refers to
how deep into the material the heat treatment can effectively transform the microstructure to
achieve the desired properties, such as increased hardness. Limiting Ruling Section: The limiting
ruling section represents the thickest section or diameter of a material that can be fully hardened
under specific heat treatment conditions. If the material's section exceeds this limit, it may not
fully transform to the desired microstructure, resulting in incomplete hardening or excessive
distortion. Factors Affecting Limiting Ruling Section: Alloy composition: Materials with higher
alloy content typically have better hardenability and can achieve greater section sizes before
encountering limitations in hardening. Cooling rate: Faster cooling rates, achieved through
various quenching methods, can extend the limiting ruling section by promoting more rapid
transformation of the microstructure.Heat treatment parameters: Temperature and time during
heating, as well as the quenching medium and agitation, all influence the effective hardenability
and, consequently, the limiting ruling section. Application: Understanding the limiting ruling
section is crucial for designing components that require specific mechanical properties
throughout their entire cross-section. Engineers use this knowledge to select appropriate
materials and heat treatment processes to ensure that critical components, such as shafts or gears,
meet performance requirements without encountering issues related to incomplete hardening. In
summary, the limiting ruling section is a key concept in material science and heat treatment,
defining the maximum thickness or diameter of a material that can be fully hardened under given
conditions. It guides material selection and process design to achieve desired mechanical
properties in manufactured components.

The most commonly used method of determining the hardenability is the end-quench test
developed by Jominy Boegehold of USA. This method has been introduced with certain
modifications in numerous countries as the standard end-quench hardenability test. At present, its
importance is considerable in the classification of steels
Fig. I.33 Charts showing the correlation between critical diameter Do, ideal diameter Dr and H-
value. The lower diagram is an enlargement of the lower left-hand portion of the upper diagram
To conduct this test, a bar of 25 mm diameter and 100 mm length is required, with a collar or
groove for holding it in the quenching bath. It is usually machined to size from a previously
normalized stock to remove the decarburized layer. Also, the end of the specimen, which will be
water-cooled, is ground to have a smooth finish. The test piece is now held in a furnace
maintained at the specified austenitizing temperature for 30-35 minutes. It is most important that
the furnace atmosphere is neutral in order to avoid scaling and decarburization. After the desired
soaking time, it is dropped into a holding fixture (Fig. 1.3a) and then quenched at its end by only
using a water jet maintained at 25 0C. This procedure is covered in an Indian standard. The water
jet should be about 12 mm in diameter and should rise to a free height of about 65 mm above the
l2-mm orifice.

All dimensions in mm Fig. 1.34 Schematic diagram of Jominy test

The time between the removal of the specimen from the hardening furnace and the beginning of
the quench should not be more than 5 seconds. Immediately after placing the test piece, the water
supply must be opened rapidly to direct the stream of water with full force against the face of the
specimen for not less than l0 minutes. As a result of this, the piece cools very rapidly at the
quenched end, but the rate of cooling decreases progressively towards the opposite end.
Therefore, a variety of continuous rates prevail along the length of the bar. After this time, the
cooling of the test piece shall be completed by immersing it in cold water. The hardened end is
then ground to different dimensions as set out in standards (1.5,2, 2.2,2.2 mm to a total of 15
mm), checking the hardness in Rockwell C scale at each stage. Test results should be plotted on a
standard hardenability chart prepared for this purpose, in which ordinates represent Rockwell C
readings and the abscissa represent the distance from the quenched end of the test piece at which
the hardness determinations were made (Fig. 1.35).

Fig. 1.36 Hardenability band of DIN 40 Cr4Mo3 (Courtesy; Rochling Stahlexport GmbH, W.
Germany).

A deep hardening steel will give an almost horizontal end-quench curve, similar to X, which
indicates that the steel will develop a substantially martensitic structure when cooled at any
desired rate within the range covered by the end-quench test. A steel of medium hardenability,
however, will give a curve similar to X, which indicates that the steel will develop a substantially
martensitic structure when cooled at any desired rate within the range covered by the end-quench
test. A steel of medium hardenability, however, will give a curve similar to Y.
The hardenability of the same steel may vary over a considerable range depending upon the
chemical composition and grain size of the given grade of steel, as shown in fig. 1.36. The upper
curve shows the maximum hardness values corresponding to the upper position limit of the steel;
and the lower curve gives the minimum hardness value corresponding to the lower limit of the
composition range. The two curves together form what is called the Jominy hardenability curve
or the hardenability band.

Types of Quenching Media

Quenching is a critical process in metallurgy used to rapidly cool a heated metal to achieve
desired properties such as hardness or strength. Different types of quenching media offer varying
rates of cooling, influencing the final properties of the metal. Here are the main types of
quenching media:

1. Water
- Water quenching is one of the most rapid methods due to its high heat capacity and thermal
conductivity.
- It provides very high cooling rates, making it suitable for hardening high-carbon steels and
some alloy steels.
- However, water can cause severe distortion, cracking, or even quenching-induced cracking in
some materials due to its rapid cooling rate.

2. Oil
- Oil quenching involves immersing the hot metal in a bath of oil, typically mineral or synthetic
oil.
- It offers slower cooling rates compared to water, reducing the risk of distortion and cracking.
- Oil quenching is suitable for a wide range of steels, including low to medium carbon steels and
some alloy steels, providing good hardness and toughness.

3. Polymer
- Polymer quenching involves the use of polymer solutions, such as water-polymer mixtures or
polymer-based oils.
- Polymer quenchants provide even slower cooling rates compared to oil, resulting in minimal
distortion and reduced risk of cracking.
- They are commonly used for quenching materials sensitive to distortion or cracking, such as
precision components or parts with complex geometries.

4. Salt
- Salt quenching involves immersing the hot metal in a bath of molten salts, typically at elevated
temperatures.
- Salt baths offer controlled cooling rates and uniform heat transfer, reducing the risk of
distortion and providing excellent surface finish.
- They are commonly used for quenching specialized alloys, tool steels, and components
requiring precise control over properties and minimal distortion.

5. Air
- Air quenching involves exposing the hot metal to ambient air, allowing it to cool naturally.
- It offers the slowest cooling rates among quenching methods, suitable for materials requiring
softening or stress relieving rather than hardening.
- Air quenching is often used for non-critical applications or materials where hardness is not a
primary concern.

Each type of quenching medium has its advantages and limitations, and the choice depends on
factors such as the material being processed, desired properties, and part geometry. Proper
selection and control of quenching parameters are essential to achieve the desired metallurgical
outcomes while minimizing defects and distortion.

HEAT TREATMENT INVOLVING SURFACE CHANGES

Heat treatment involving surface changes is a process used to modify the surface properties of a
material while retaining its core properties. Here are some common methods:
Flame Hardening
Flame hardening is a heat treatment process used to harden the surface of a metal component by
heating it quickly with a flame and then rapidly cooling it. Here's a detailed explanation of the
process:

1. Preparation: The surface of the metal component to be hardened is cleaned thoroughly to

remove any contaminants that could interfere with the process. This ensures uniform
heating and effective hardening.
 2. Localized Heating: A high-temperature flame, typically generated by oxy-acetylene or
oxy-propane torches, is directed onto the surface of the metal. The flame’s heat is
concentrated on the specific areas that need to be hardened, such as wear-prone surfaces
like gears, shafts, or cutting edges.
3. Heating: The intense heat from the flame rapidly raises the temperature of the surface
layer of the metal. The temperature required for flame hardening depends on the material
being treated and the desired hardness depth.
4. Quenching: Once the desired temperature is reached, the heated area is quickly cooled by
quenching, usually through the application of a water spray or a water-soaked rag. The
rapid cooling helps to transform the heated surface layer into a hardened structure.
5. Transformation: During the rapid cooling, the heated surface layer undergoes a phase
transformation, typically transforming into martensite, a hard crystalline structure.
Martensite formation is favored by the rapid cooling rate, which traps carbon atoms
within the crystal lattice, increasing hardness.
6. Tempering (Optional): In some cases, after flame hardening, the component may undergo
a tempering process to relieve internal stresses and improve toughness. Tempering
involves reheating the hardened component to a lower temperature and then cooling it
slowly.
7. Post-treatment: After flame hardening and any subsequent tempering, the component may
undergo additional processes such as grinding or machining to achieve the desired
surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
Flame hardening offers advantages such as localized heating, flexibility, and relatively low
equipment cost compared to other hardening methods. It’s commonly used in industries where
selective hardening of specific areas of a component is required to enhance wear resistance and
prolong component life. However, precise control of heating and cooling rates is essential to
ensure uniform hardness and minimize distortion or cracking of the component.

Induction Hardening
Induction hardening is a surface heat treatment process used to improve the hardness and wear
resistance of metal components. Here's a detailed explanation of the process:
1. Principle: Induction hardening utilizes electromagnetic induction to heat the surface of a metal
component quickly and selectively, without affecting the core properties. A high-frequency
alternating current is passed through an induction coil, generating a rapidly alternating magnetic
field. When the metal component is placed within this field, eddy currents are induced in the
surface layer, leading to rapid and localized heating.
2. Preparation: Before induction hardening, the surface of the metal component is typically
cleaned to remove any contaminants. This ensures uniform heating and effective hardening.
3. Coil Design: The shape and design of the induction coil are critical for achieving the desired
heating pattern on the component's surface. The coil is often custom-designed to match the
geometry of the component and to deliver the appropriate heating pattern.
4. Heating: The metal component is positioned within the induction coil, and the alternating
magnetic field induces eddy currents in the surface layer. These currents dissipate energy in the
form of heat, rapidly raising the temperature of the surface layer to the desired hardening
temperature.
5. Quenching: Once the surface has reached the desired temperature, the heating power is
switched off, and the component is quickly quenched to cool the surface layer. Quenching is
typically achieved using water, oil, or polymer quenchants, depending on the material and
hardening requirements.
6. Transformation: The rapid cooling rate during quenching causes the surface layer of the metal
to undergo a phase transformation, typically transforming into martensite, a hard and brittle
crystalline structure. Martensite formation is favored by the rapid cooling rate, which traps
carbon atoms within the crystal lattice, increasing hardness.
7. Control and Monitoring: Induction hardening processes often incorporate advanced control
and monitoring systems to ensure precise control of heating and cooling rates, as well as
uniformity of the hardened layer thickness. This helps to achieve consistent hardness and avoid
issues such as distortion or cracking of the component.
8. Post-treatment: Depending on the specific requirements, the hardened component may
undergo additional processes such as tempering to relieve internal stresses and improve
toughness, or grinding and machining to achieve the desired surface finish and dimensional
accuracy.
Induction hardening is widely used in various industries, including automotive, aerospace, and
manufacturing, for applications where selective hardening of specific areas of a component is
required to improve wear resistance and prolong component life. Its advantages include rapid
heating, precise control, and minimal distortion compared to traditional heat treatment methods
like flame hardening or carburizing.

Laser Hardening
Laser hardening is a surface heat treatment process that utilizes a high-energy laser beam to
quickly heat and harden specific areas of metal components. Here's a detailed explanation of the
process:
1. Principle: Laser hardening relies on the principle of localized heating using a focused laser
beam. The laser beam is directed onto the surface of the metal component, where it rapidly heats
the targeted area to the desired hardening temperature.

2. Preparation: Before laser hardening, the surface of the metal component is typically cleaned to
remove any contaminants. This ensures uniform heating and effective hardening.
3. Laser System: The laser system consists of a high-power laser source, focusing optics, and a
control system. The laser beam is emitted from the laser source and focused onto the surface of
the metal component using focusing optics. The control system allows for precise control of the
laser parameters, such as power, pulse duration, and scanning speed.
4. Heating: The focused laser beam rapidly heats the surface of the metal component to the
desired hardening temperature. The heating is highly localized, allowing for selective hardening
of specific areas while minimizing heat input to the surrounding regions.
5. Quenching: Once the surface has reached the desired temperature, the heating source is turned
off, and the component is quickly quenched to cool the surface layer. Quenching is typically
achieved using water, oil, or polymer quenchants, depending on the material and hardening
requirements.
6. Transformation: The rapid cooling rate during quenching causes the surface layer of the metal
to undergo a phase transformation, typically transforming into martensite, a hard and brittle
crystalline structure. Martensite formation is favored by the rapid cooling rate, which traps
carbon atoms within the crystal lattice, increasing hardness.
7. Control and Monitoring: Laser hardening processes often incorporate advanced control and
monitoring systems to ensure precise control of laser parameters and uniformity of the hardened
layer thickness. This helps to achieve consistent hardness and avoid issues such as distortion or
cracking of the component.
8.Post-treatment: Depending on the specific requirements, the hardened component may undergo
additional processes such as tempering to relieve internal stresses and improve toughness, or
grinding and machining to achieve the desired surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
Laser hardening offers several advantages, including precise control, high processing speeds, and
minimal distortion. It is commonly used in industries such as automotive, aerospace, and tooling
for applications where selective hardening of specific areas of a component is required to
improve wear resistance and prolong component life.

Electron beam Hardening

Electron beam hardening is a surface heat treatment process that utilizes a high-energy electron
beam to heat and harden specific areas of metal components. Here's a detailed explanation of the
process:
1. Principle: Electron beam hardening is based on the principle of localized heating using a
focused beam of high-energy electrons. The electron beam is generated by accelerating electrons
to high velocities and focusing them onto the surface of the metal component.

2. Preparation: Before electron beam hardening, the surface of the metal component is typically
cleaned to remove any contaminants. This ensures uniform heating and effective hardening.
3. Electron Beam System: The electron beam system consists of an electron gun, focusing optics,
and a control system. The electron gun generates a high-energy electron beam, which is then
focused onto the surface of the metal component using focusing optics. The control system
allows for precise control of the electron beam parameters, such as energy, beam current, and
scanning speed.
4. Heating: The focused electron beam rapidly heats the surface of the metal component to the
desired hardening temperature. The heating is highly localized, allowing for selective hardening
of specific areas while minimizing heat input to the surrounding regions.
5. Quenching: Once the surface has reached the desired temperature, the electron beam is turned
off, and the component is quickly quenched to cool the surface layer. Quenching is typically
achieved using water, oil, or polymer quenchants, depending on the material and hardening
requirements.
6. Transformation: The rapid cooling rate during quenching causes the surface layer of the metal
to undergo a phase transformation, typically transforming into martensite, a hard and brittle
crystalline structure. Martensite formation is favored by the rapid cooling rate, which traps
carbon atoms within the crystal lattice, increasing hardness.
7. Control and Monitoring: Electron beam hardening processes often incorporate advanced
control and monitoring systems to ensure precise control of electron beam parameters and
uniformity of the hardened layer thickness. This helps to achieve consistent hardness and avoid
issues such as distortion or cracking of the component.
8. Post-treatment: Depending on the specific requirements, the hardened component may
undergo additional processes such as tempering to relieve internal stresses and improve
toughness, or grinding and machining to achieve the desired surface finish and dimensional
accuracy.
Electron beam hardening offers several advantages, including precise control, high processing
speeds, and minimal distortion. It is commonly used in industries such as aerospace, automotive,
and tooling for applications where selective hardening of specific areas of a component is
required to improve wear resistance and prolong component life.

THERMOCHEMICAL TREATMENT OF METALS

Surface engineering represents the technically attractive and economically viable method aimed
at improving the superficial layer of materials. Since the material surface controls the service life
in many applications, the objective is to develop a wide range of functional properties that are
different from the base substrate including physical, chemical, electrical, electronic, magnetic or
mechanical. Being a part of surface engineering, the thermochemical treatment employs thermal
diffusion to incorporate non-metal or metal atoms into a material surface to modify its chemistry
and microstructure (Fig. 1). The process is conducted in solid, liquid or gaseous media with one
or several simultaneously active chemical elements. For majority of thermochemical treatments
the mechanism includes a decomposition of solid, liquid or gaseous species, splitting of gaseous
molecules to form nascent atoms, absorption of atoms, their diffusion into a metallic lattice and
reactions within the substrate structure to modify existing or form new phases. Since in industrial
scale processes the entire part is subjected to high temperatures, surface diffusion is
superimposed on changes within the material volume that for some treatments may involve
phase transformations and this adds to the complexity.
CARBURISING
Carburising is a process in which austenised ferrous metal is brought into contact with an
environment of sufficient carbon potential to cause absorption of carbon at the surface, and by
diffusion, to create a carbon concentration gradient between the surface and interior of the metal.
The addition of carbon preferentially to the surface layers of the steels followed by proper heat
treatment develops the hard abrasive, wear resistant surface and as the core remains
comparatively soft and tough the component as a whole shows high impact strength. Due to the
residual stress pattern developed during the process the fatigue strength also improves.
Carburising can be done in a gaseous atmosphere (gas carburising), a salt bath (liquid
carburising), or an environment where in all surfaces are covered by a solid compound (pack
carburising). The transport of carbon form the carburising medium always takes place via a
gaseous phase, usually carbon monoxide (CO)

Mechanism of Carburising
In the carburising process, free carbon is absorbed in the surface layer of a piece of steel that has
a usually low carbon content. The free carbon is derived from a gaseous or liquid substance in
intimate contact with the metal surface by means of chemical reactions that do not directly
involve the metal but that may be catalysed by the presence of the metal. Absorption of carbon
into the surface layer sets up a concentration gradient and carbon atoms move by diffusion away
from the surface.
Successful operation of the gas carburising process depends on the control of three principal
variables: temperature, time and atmosphere composition. The maximum rate of carburising at
which carbon could be added to steel is limited by the rate of diffusion of carbon in austenite.
This diffusion rate increases greatly with temperature. The temperature most commonly used for
carburising is 925° C. This temperature permits a reasonably rapid carburising rate without
excessive deterioration of furnace equipments.
The term depth of carburisation means either the distance below the surface to a definite carbon
concentration or to the total depth of carbon penetration. In addition to time and temperature the
depth of carburisation depends on the carbon potential of the carburising medium and on the
composition of the steel. The higher the carbon potential the higher the carbon concentration at
the surface of the steel, when equilibrium has been established and the deeper the carburising
depth.
The carbon potential may be defined as the carbon content which a specimen of carbon steel foil
acquires when equilibrium conditions have been established between the carbon content of
carburising medium and the carbon content of the foil.

CARBONITRIDING
Carbonitriding is a case hardening process in which carbon and alloy steels are held at an
elevated temperature (usually above the transformation range) in a gaseous atmosphere from
which they absorb carbon and nitrogen simultaneously, and are then cooled to room temperature
at a rate that will produce desired case and core properties. The carbon is derived from any
carbon rich gas or vapourised liquid hydrocarbon that is suitable for carburising. Ammonia is the
source of nitrogen.
Carbonitriding thus is a modified gas carburising process, rather than a form of nitriding. The
modification consists of introducing ammonia into a gas carburising atmosphere in order to add
nitrogen to the carburised case as it is being produced. Ammonia in the atmosphere dissociates to
form nascent nitrogen at the work surface which diffuses into the steel simultaneously with
carbon. Typically, carbonitriding is carried out at a lower temperature and for a shorter time than
gas carburising, in order to obtain a case shallower than is usual in production carburising.
In its effects on steel, carbonitriding is similar to liquid cyaniding. Because of problems in
disposing of cyanide bearing wastes, carbonitriding is often preferred over liquid cyaniding. In
terms of case characteristics, carbonitriding differs from carburising and nitriding in that (a)
carburised cases normally do not contain nitrogen and (b) nitrided cases contain no added
carbon, where carbonitrided cases contain both.
Cabonitriding is used primarily to impart a hard, wear resistant case, generally from 0.075 to
0.75 mm deep. A carbonitrided case has better hardenability than a carburised case;
conseqUently, by carbonitriding and quenching, a hardened case can be produced at less
expenses within the case depth range indicated, using either carbon or low alloy steel. Full
hardness with less distortion can be achieved with oil quenching or, in some instances, even gas
quenching employing a protective atmosphere as the quenching media. The resistance of a
carbonitrided 'surface to softening during tempering is markedly superior to that of a carburised
surface.
The composition of a carbonitrided case depends on temperature, time and atmosphere
composition for carbonitriding and type of steel. The higher the carbonitriding temperature, the
less effective is the ammonia in the atmosphere. Lower temperature favour increased nitrogen
concentration at the steel surface and steeper nitrogen gradients. When carbonitriding is carried
out at about 840°C the percentage of carbon and nitrogen at surface varies between 0.6 to 0.8.
Carbonitriding can be carried at such low temperatures as to produce a compound layer, so called
because iron-carbon-nitrogen compounds are formed at surface. To produce this layer of
compound, however, large percentage of ammonia is required. In some wear application this type
of case is very suitable.
Almost any furnace suitable for gas carburising can be adapted to carbonitriding. If dense loads
are to be processed, the furnace must be equipped with a fan to circulate the atmosphere through
them. The atmosphere used in carbonitriding generally comprise a mixture of carrier gas,
enrichment gas and ammonia. Basically, the atmospheres used in carbonitriding are produced by
adding from 2 to 12% ammonia to a - standard gas carburising atmosphere. The most commonly
used carrier gas is endo gas which is enriched with LPG or propane. The gases are premixed just
before the entry into the furnace. To control the furnace atmosphere dew point meter, infrared
analyer and oxygen probes can be used effectively.
NITRIDING
Nitriding is a case hardening process whereby nitrogen is introduced into the surface of a ferrous
alloy by holding the metal at a suitable temperature (below Ac1, for ferritic steels) in contact with
a nitrogen atmosphere usually ammonia. Nitriding is also carried out in presence of liquid
nitriding salts containing cyanides and cyanates. Quenching is not required for the production of
a hard case. The nitriding temperature for all steels is between 495 and 565°C.
The addition of nitrogen to the surface of steels produces a hard, wear resistant surface, along
with improved fatigue properties and better dimensional control. Because of the absence of a
quenching requirement, with attendant volume changes, and comparatively low temperatures
employed in the process, nitriding produces less distortation and deformation than either
carburizing or conventional hardening. Since nitriding is carried out below the austenite range,
the steel is quenched and tempered to the final desired core properties prior to nitriding.
Of the alloying elements commonly used in commercial steels, aluminium, chromium,
vanadium, tungsten and molybdenum are beneficial in nitriding, because they form nitrides that
are stable at nitriding temperatures. Aluminium containing steels produce a nitrided case of very
high hardness and excellent wear resistance.
In gas nitriding the process is carried out in mixtures of ammonia gas (NH3) and hydrogen, such
that atomic nitrogen is released at the metal surface. The nitriding process is based on the affinity
of nascent nitrogen for iron and certain other metallic elements. Nascent nitrogen is produced by
the dissociation of gaseous ammonia when it contacts hot steel parts.

Ferritic Nitrocarburizing

TEMPERING
when steel is hardened it acquires the structure of tetragonal martensite and a certain retained
austenite. Steel in this condition is hard, brittle and highly stressed and liable to develop quench
cracks, particularly in tool steels. Thus steels in the as-hardened condition are of limited
usefulness. To overcome this, the hardened steel should have a cannot be achieved to pass into a
stable condition. But this equilibrium or stable state temperature at room temperature because of
the low mobility of atoms. As the and rises, the mobility of atoms increases due to the
accelerated diffusion rate, This, this results in a structural change of the hardened steel to give
rise to a stable state. hardness in effect, and is the process of tempering. By tempering, ductility
can be increased, and strength decreased. In the majority of structural steel, the purpose is to
obtain a high combination of high strength, ductility, and toughness. Thus, the tempering after
hardening, makes the steel more useful by providing a stable structure.

HEAT TREATMENT FURNACES

Furnaces used for different heat-treating operations depend on the temperature employed, which
in turn depends on the amounts of components to be treated. Furnaces available to suit the heat
treatment requirements may be classified as follows:
1. 150-700 0C-used for nitriding, tempering, stress relieving, annealing, etc.
2. 650-1000 0C -used for hardening, normalizing, carburizing, annealing, etc.
3. Over 1000 0C -used for hardening of hot work steel, high speed steel, sintering, etc. Furnaces
that are used for different types of heat treatment processes may be divided into batch-type and
continuous type furnaces.
FURNACE ENERGY SUPPLY
Fuel
Energy from the Sun is converted into chemical energy by photosynthesis. But, as we know,
when we burn dried plants or wood, producing energy in the form of heat and light, we are
releasing the Sun’s energy originally stored in that plant or in that wood through photosynthesis.
We know that, in most of the world today, wood is not the main source of fuel. We generally use
natural gas or oil in our homes, and we use mainly oil and coal to heat the water to produce the
steam to drive the turbines for our huge power generation systems. The substances which give
energy in the form of heat and light on their combustion with air in a manner which could be
utilized efficiently and economically are known as fuel. These fuels - coal, oil, and natural gas -
are often referred to as fossil fuels. The various types of fuels (like liquid, solid and gaseous
fuels) that are available depend on various factors such as costs, availability, storage, handling,
pollution and landed boilers, furnaces and other combustion equipment. The knowledge of the
fuel properties helps in selecting the right fuel for the right purpose and for the efficient use of
the fuel. Laboratory tests are generally used for assessing the nature and quality of fuels.
Since the products of flue gases directly contact the stock, type of fuel chosen is of importance.
For example, some materials will not tolerate Sulphur in the fuel. Also, use of solid fuels will
generate particulate matter, which will interfere the stock place inside the furnace. Hence, vast
majority of the furnaces use liquid fuel, gaseous fuel or electricity as energy input. Melting
furnaces for steel, cast iron use electricity in induction and arc furnaces. Non-ferrous melting
utilizes oil as fuel.
Conventional and Non-conventional Source of Energy:
a) Conventional Energy Sources: Conventional sources of energy are also called non-renewable
sources. These sources of energy are in limited quantity except hydro-electric power. These are
further classified as commercial energy and non-commercial energy:
➢ Commercial Energy Sources: These are coal, petroleum and electricity. These are called
commercial energy because they have a price and consumer has to pay the price to purchase
them.
➢ Non-Commercial energy Sources: These sources include fuel wood, straw and dried dung.
These are commonly used in rural India. According to an estimate, the total availability of fuel
wood in India was only 50 million tonnes a year. It is less than 50% of the total requirements.
Agricultural wastes like straw are used as fuel for cooking purposes. The straw can be used as
valuable organic manure for increasing fertility of soil and in turn productivity.
b) Non-Conventional Sources of Energy: Besides conventional sources of energy there are non-
conventional sources of energy. These are also called renewable sources of energy. Examples are
Bio energy, solar energy, wind energy and tidal energy.
The various sources are given below:
1. Solar Energy: Energy produced through the sunlight is called solar energy. Under this
programme, solar photovoltaic cells are exposed to sunlight and in the form of electricity is
produced. Photovoltaic cells are those which convert sun light energy into electricity. Solar
energy is used for cooking, heating water and distillation of water etc.
2. Wind Energy: This type of energy can be produced by harnessing wind power. It is used for
operating water pumps for irrigation purposes.
3. Tidal Energy: Energy produced by exploiting the tidal waves of the sea is called tidal energy.
Due to the absence of cost effective technology, this source has not yet been tapped.
4. Bio Energy: This type of energy is obtained from organic matter
It is of two kinds:
➢ Biogas: Biogas is obtained from cow dung gas plant by putting cow dung into the plant.
Besides producing gas this plant converts cow dung into manure. It can be used for cooking,
lighting and generation of electricity.
➢ Biomass: It is also of a source of producing energy through plants and trees. The purpose of
bio mass programme is to encourage afforestation for energy. So that fuel for the generation of
energy based on gas technique and fodder for the cattle could be obtained. 5. Energy from Urban
Waste: Urban waste poses a big problem for its disposal and it can be used for generation of
power.
Electrical Energy
Electrical energy is not a fuel but is a substitute for fuel and replaces it (or displaces it) in many
industrial applications. Electricity can be generated from several sources of energy.
➢ By conversion of chemical energy in coal, oil, peat or other conventional fuels into heat by
burning, into mechanical energy by steam-raising, and then to electrical energy by using a
turbine and dynamo.
➢ By conversion of the potential energy in water in elevated reservoirs to kinetic energy in
raceways and then to mechanical and electrical energy using turbines and dynamos.
➢ By similar conversion of the kinetic energy in wind.
➢ By conversion of nuclear energy via heat and steam.
➢ By the use of electrolytic cells and fuel cells in which chemical energy can be converted
directly to electrical energy.

TYPE OF FUELS
The fuels can be commonly classified on the basis of physical state of their occurrence, source,
process of production and renewable/non-renewable quality as follows:
➢ Physical state of fuel, i.e., solid (coal, coke, charcoal, etc.), liquid (petrol, diesel, etc.) and gas
(methane, hydrogen, etc.).
➢ Source of fuel, i.e., primary sources like coal, crude oil, and natural gas which occur in nature
or secondary sources like coke, diesel, hydrogen, etc. which are prepared by some industrial
processes.
➢ Process of production, i.e., purposefully manufactured fuel like metallurgical coke or by-
product fuel like blast furnace gas.
➢ Nature of fuel—Non-renewable (fossil) fuels like coal, crude oil, natural gas or renewable
fuels like hydrogen, biomass, etc.
PROPORTIES OF FUEL: The various properties of liquid fuels are given below.
➢ Chemical composition: Carbon content, water content, ash content, sulphur, nitrogen,
hydrogen content etc.
➢ Density
➢ Specific gravity
➢ Viscosity
➢ Flash point
➢ Pour point
➢ Specific heat
➢ Calorific value
OIL FIRED FURNACE
Furnace oil is the major fuel used in oil fired furnaces, especially for reheating and heat
treatment of materials. LDO is used in furnaces where presence of Sulphur is undesirable. The
key to efficient furnace operation lies in complete combustion of fuel with minimum excess air.
Furnaces operate with efficiencies as low as 7% as against up to 90% achievable in other
combustion equipment such as boiler. This is because of the high temperature at which the
furnaces have to operate to meet the required demand. For example, a furnace heating the stock
to 1200°C will have its exhaust gases leaving at least at 1200°C resulting in a huge heat loss
through the stack. However, improvements in efficiencies have been brought about by methods
such as preheating of stock, preheating of combustion air and other waste heat recovery systems.
COAL
Coal is a black or brownish-black combustible solid formed by the decomposition of vegetation
in the absence of air. Microscopy can identify plant tissues, resins, spores, etc. that existed in the
original structure. It is composed principally of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and small amounts of
sulfur and nitrogen. Associated with the organic matrix are water and as many as 65 other
chemical elements. Many trace elements can be determined by spectrometric method D-3683.
Coal is used directly as a fuel, a chemical reactant, and a source of organic chemicals. It can also
be converted to liquid and gaseous fuels.
TYPES OF HEAT TREATTMENT FURNACES
i) Forging Furnaces
The forging furnace is used for preheating billets and ingots to attain a ‘forge’ temperature. The
furnace temperature is maintained at around 1200 to 1250°C. Forging furnaces, use an open
fireplace system and most of the heat is transmitted by radiation. The typical loading in a forging
furnace is 5 to 6 tonnes with the furnace operating for 16 to 18 hours daily. The total operating
cycle can be divided into
(i) heat-up time
(ii) soaking time and
(iii) forging time.
Specific fuel consumption depends upon the type of material and number of ‘reheats’ required.

Rerolling Mill Furnace

a) Batch type
A box type furnace is employed for batch type rerolling mill. The furnace is basically used for
heating up scrap, small ingots and billets weighing 2 to 20 kg. for rerolling. The charging and
discharging of the ‘material’ is done manually and the final product is in the form of rods, strips
etc. The operating temperature is about 1200 0C. The total cycle time can be further categorized
into heat-up time and rerolling time. During heat-up time the material gets heated upto the
required temperature and is removed manually for rerolling. The average output from these
furnaces varies from 10 to 15 tonnes / day and the specific fuel consumption varies from 180 to
280 kg. of coal / tonne of heated material.
b) Continuous Pusher Type:
The process flow and operating cycles of a continuous pusher type is the same as that of the
batch furnace. The operating temperature is about 1250 °C. Generally, these furnaces operate 8 to
10 hours with an output of 20 to 25 tonnes per day. The material or stock recovers a part of the
heat in flue gases as it moves down the length of the furnace. Heat absorption by the material in
the furnace is slow, steady and uniform throughout the cross-section compared with batch type.
VACUUM FURNACES
The development and application of vacuum heat treating of metals has been going on for the
last 30 years. Vacuum furnaces can be used for heat treating steels and non-ferrous alloys as well
as super alloys in the place of conventional methods such as controlled atmosphere or molten salt
bath. vacuum furnaces provide the necessary conditions for clean atmosphere without which the
heat treatment of various sophisticated air- craft. engine components would not be possible.
Vacuum heat treating is gaining more application since it ensures consistent metallurgical
characteristics on the components together with less deformation and brilliant surface. Vacuum
furnaces are now available in a modern design which has eliminated the limitations of the
previous models.
Unlike conventional atmosphere heat treatment, vacuum heat treatment does not require control
of the carbon potential of prepared atmosphere and related furnace-conditioning requirements. In
atmosphere heat treating, the water vapour content or dew point of a protective gas atmosphere is
often the most critically controlled variable in addition to the temperature and time of processing
during heat treating.
The essential difference between vacuum heat treating and other heat-treating methods is the
evacuation of the heating chamber during heating-up and holding. Subsequently, the components
are cooled or quenched depending on the specific process requirement. The evacuation of active
gases provides an absolute neutral condition and prevents the occurrence during heat treating of
surface reactions such as oxidation, decarburization, etc
FLUIDIZED BED FURNACES
Fluidized bed furnaces are used for neutral hardening, annealing, carburizing, carbonnitriding,
nitriding, ferritic nitrocarburizing, tempering, patenting, mar-quenching, etc.
Figure below illustrates the basic arrangements usually employed for fluidized bed furnaces. The
furnace consists of an outer shell lined with a heavy ceramic-fibre blanket insulation which
surrounds the electrically heated or gas-fired heating chamber' The heating chamber encloses a
retort and diffusion plate constructed of heat-resistant alloys which is welded into the bottom of
the retort. This plate is termed as the distributor plate and uniformly distributes the gas phase
from the plenum chamber below the distributor plate. Above the porous plate, the bed of fine
particles such as sand, aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide or other similar material is held. Pre-
mixed air and gas is blown upward into the furnace at a certain velocity, through the distributor
plate. This fluidizes the bed of sand or alumina particles and makes it behave re-markably like a
liquid.

Fig. Typical externally heated, fluidized-bed, electric furnace

The standard range of fluidized bed furnaces now commercially available can be externally
heated by gas or electricity, internal combustion or submerged combustion.
FORCED AIR CIRCULATION FURNACE
A forced air circulation furnace is a type of heating system that uses a blower to circulate heated
air throughout a building or home. It typically involves burning fuel (such as gas or oil) or
electric heating elements to generate heat, which is then distributed through ductwork via the
blower. This type of furnace is common in residential and commercial buildings due to its
efficiency and ability to quickly heat large spaces.
1. Basic Principle: The basic principle behind a forced-air circulation furnace is to heat air and
distribute it throughout the building using a blower or fan.

2. Heat Source: The heat source for a forced-air furnace can vary. It could be a gas burner,
electric heating elements, or even a heat pump system. The heat source heats up the air inside the
furnace.

3. Air Intake: Cold air from inside the building is drawn into the furnace through a vent or intake
duct.
4. Heat Exchange: The cold air passes through a heat exchanger, where it absorbs heat from the
heat source. The heat exchanger ensures that the combustion gases from the heat source do not
mix with the heated air that will be circulated throughout the building.

5. Blower or Fan: Once the air is heated, a blower or fan forces the heated air through the
ductwork of the building. This fan pushes the air at a controlled rate to ensure even distribution
throughout the space.

6. Ductwork: The ductwork system consists of a network of metal or flexible tubes that carry the
heated air from the furnace to different rooms and areas of the building.

7. Registers and Grilles: In each room or area, there are registers or grilles where the heated air is
released into the space. These registers can usually be opened or closed to control the amount of
airflow into each room.

8. Thermostat Control: The temperature in the building is regulated by a thermostat, which

senses the temperature and signals the furnace to turn on or off as needed to maintain the desired
temperature.

9. Air Filtration and Humidification: Many forced-air furnaces also include filters to remove
dust, allergens, and other particles from the air. Some models also have built-in humidifiers to
add moisture to the air during the heating process, which can help maintain a comfortable indoor
environment during the winter months.
Overall, forced-air circulation furnaces are efficient and effective heating systems that provide
consistent warmth throughout a building while also allowing for temperature control and air
quality management.

HEAT TREATMENT OF NON-FERROUS METALS

Structural and Property Changes of Aluminum Alloys to Heat Treatment
Aluminum is best known for its lightweight, corrosion resistance, and attractive appearance
although other properties may be equally important-such as its good electrical and thermal
conductivity, its high reflectivity, and non-sparking characteristics. Since pure aluminum is soft
with only moderate strength, most applications for aluminum will involve aluminum alloys, as
the addition of alloying constituents greatly increases both strength and hardness.
With the growth of aluminum within a wide range of industries, and its acceptance as an
excellent alternative to steel for many applications, there are increasing requirements for those
involved with developing aluminum projects to become more familiar with this group of
materials. To fully understand aluminum, it is advisable to start by becoming acquainted with the
aluminum identification/designation system, the many aluminum alloys available and their
characteristics.
Wrought Alloy Designation System
In the 4-digit wrought aluminum alloy identification system, the first digit (Xxxx) indicates the
principal alloying element, which has been added to the aluminum alloy and is often used to
describe the aluminum alloy series, i.e., 1000 series, 2000 series, 3000 series, up to 8000 series
(see Table below). The second single digit (xXxx), if different from 0, indicates a modification of
the specific alloy, and the third and fourth digits (xxXX) are arbitrary numbers given to identify a
specific alloy in the series. Example: In alloy 5183, the number 5 indicates that it is of the
magnesium alloy series, the 1 indicates that it is the 1st modification to the original alloy 5083,
and the 83 identifies it in the 5xxx series. The only exception to this alloy numbering system is
with the 1xxx series aluminum alloys (pure aluminums) in which case, the last 2 digits provide
the minimum aluminum percentage above 99%, i.e., Alloy 13(50) (99.50% minimum
aluminum).

Heat-Treatable Alloys
Alloys in this group derive their strength from alloying elements such as copper, magnesium,
zinc, and silicon. Since these elements show increasing solid solubility in aluminum with
increasing temperature, it is possible to subject these alloys to thermal treatments, which will
impart pronounced strengthening. Aluminum alloys have been the material of choice for aircraft
construction since the 1930s. The aerospace industry relies heavily on 2xxx and 7xxx alloys,
while 6xxx aluminum alloys are of particular interest since they have numerous benefits
including medium strength, formability, weldability, corrosion resistance, and low cost. 6xxx can
be used in a variety of applications including aircraft fuselage skins and automobile body panels
and bumpers, instead of more expensive 2xxx and 7xxx alloys, after appropriate heat treatments.
Aluminum is also widely used in other transportation industries such as passenger ships, and
trains. To improve properties and enhance strength and ductility, aluminum alloys are thermally
processed by a series of heating and cooling cycles called heat treatment. This thermal
processing involves three basic operations: solution heat treatment, rapid cooling (quench) and
natural or artificial aging. The first step, solution heat treatment, is an elevated temperature
process designed to dissolve the soluble eutectic constituents and put them into solid solution.
The temperatures used for solution heat treating vary with different alloys and range from 825 to
980°F (441 to 527°C). As a rule, they must be controlled within a very narrow range (±10°F) to
obtain specified properties. If the temperature is too low, maximum strength will not be obtained.
When excessive temperatures are used, there is danger of melting the low melting constituents
(eutectic melting) of some alloys with consequent lowering of the physical properties of the
alloy. Even if melting does not occur, the use of higher than recommended temperatures
promotes discoloration and increases quenching strains. During solution treatment, some
alloying elements are dissolved to produce a solid solution. The objective of this process is to
maximize the concentration of hardening elements including copper, zinc, magnesium, and (or)
silicon in the solid solution. The concentration and rate of dissolution of these elements increases
with temperature. For example, in the case of 2024, the major alloy element is copper, and by
taking the part to 920°F (493°C), the copper present within the 2024 will dissolve or disperse
uniformly throughout the solid aluminum matrix.

The time at temperature, referred to as soaking time, is measured from the time the coldest metal
reaches the minimum limit of the desired temperature range. The soaking time varies, depending
upon the alloy and thickness, from 10 minutes for thin sheets to approximately 12 hours (for
heavy forgings). For the heavy sections, the nominal soaking time is approximately 1 hour for
each inch of cross-sectional thickness. The minimum soaking time necessary to develop the
required physical properties should be chosen. The effect of an abbreviated soaking time is
obvious; the constituents will not be taken into solution effectively. An excessive soaking period
on the other hand, aggravates high temperature oxidation. With clad material, prolonged heating
results in excessive diffusion of copper and other soluble constituents into the protective
cladding, reduce the corrosion resistance of the alloy and may defeat the purpose of cladding.
After the soluble constituents are in solid solution, the material is quenched to prevent or retard
immediate reprecipitation. This is accomplished by rapid quenching, usually in water, which
"freezes" the metallurgical structure in place and for a short time renders the alloy very
workable. It is at this stage that some fabricators retain this more workable structure by storing
the alloys at below freezing temperatures until they are ready to form them. At room or elevated
temperatures most alloys are not stable after quenching however, and precipitation of the
constituents from the super-saturated solution commences. After a period of several days at room
temperature, termed natural aging, the alloy is considerably stronger. Many alloys approach a
stable condition at room temperature, but some alloys, particularly those containing magnesium
and silicon or magnesium and zinc, continue to age harden for long periods of time at room
temperature. By heating for a controlled time at slightly elevated temperatures, even further
strengthening is possible and properties are stabilized. This process is called artificial aging or
precipitation hardening. The precipitants formed and grown by artificial aging are more
controlled and substantial in nature, resulting in higher mechanical properties as compared to
naturally aged conditions. The temperatures used for precipitation hardening depend upon the
alloy and the properties desired, ranging from 225 to 375°F (107 to 191°C). These should also be
controlled within a very narrow range (±5°F) to obtain best results. The time at temperature is
dependent upon the temperature used, the properties desired, and the alloy. It ranges from 4 to 24
hours. Increasing the aging temperature decreases the soaking period necessary for proper aging.
However, a closer control of both time and temperature is necessary when using the higher
temperatures. After receiving the thermal precipitation treatment, the material should be air
cooled to room temperature. Furnace cooling has a tendency to produce over-aging. Over-aging
is softening resulting from prolonged aging. Maximum hardening is associated with an optimum
small particle size and a corresponding large number of particles; while over-aging is associated
with few relatively large particles.
By the proper combination of solution heat treatment, quenching, cold working and aging the
highest strengths are obtained. In the case of natural aging of 2024 (i.e. aging at room
temperature), the dissolved copper slowly comes back out of solution over an extended time (96
hours minimum), forming CuAl precipitants. Precipitated particles in heat treatable aluminum
alloys strengthen the alloy by pinning or locking up numerous microstructural features in the
aluminum. Other heat treatable alloys like 6061 and 7075 undergo very similar precipitation
reactions, with the actual precipitated particles differing depending on whether zinc, magnesium,
manganese, silicon or copper additions are present. The way that metallurgists control the
formation of these precipitants will determine the alloy's mechanical and corrosion properties.
Engineering Properties of Heat-Treated Copper Alloys
These are some engineering properties of heat-treated copper alloys:
1. Strength: Heat treatment can significantly increase the strength of copper alloys by
controlling the microstructure and grain size.
2. Hardness: Heat treatment alters the hardness of copper alloys, making them more suitable
for specific applications that require hardness, such as bearings and gears.
3. Ductility: Depending on the heat treatment process, ductility can be adjusted to meet the
requirements of different applications.
4. Electrical Conductivity: Copper alloys are known for their excellent electrical
conductivity, and heat treatment can help maintain or even enhance this property.
5. Corrosion Resistance: Heat treatment can improve the corrosion resistance of copper
alloys by refining the microstructure and reducing the presence of impurities.
6. Wear Resistance: Through heat treatment, copper alloys can be made more resistant to
wear, extending their service life in demanding applications.
7. Machinability: Heat-treated copper alloys can exhibit improved machinability, making
them easier to work with during manufacturing processes.
8. Dimensional Stability: Heat treatment can help stabilize the dimensions of copper alloys,
reducing the risk of distortion or warping during use.
9. Fatigue Resistance: Proper heat treatment can enhance the fatigue resistance of copper
alloys, making them suitable for applications involving cyclic loading.
10. Creep Resistance: By controlling the microstructure, heat treatment can improve the
creep resistance of copper alloys, allowing them to withstand high temperatures and long-
term stress without deformation.

DEFORMATION OF METALS
ELASTIC AND PLASTIC BEHAVIOR
 The recovery of the original dimensions of a deformed body when the load is removed is
known as elastic behavior.
 The limiting load beyond which the material no longer behaves elastically is the elastic
limit.
 If the elastic limit is exceeded, the body will experience a permanent set or deformation
when the load is removed. A body which is permanently deformed is said to have
undergone plastic deformation.
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
 The usual method of plastic deformation in metals is by the sliding of blocks of the
crystal over one another along definite crystallographic planes, called slip planes.
 As a very crude approximation, the slip, or glide of a crystal can be considered analogous
to the distortion produced in a deck of cards when it is pushed from one end.
 Figure; Schematic drawing of classical idea of slip
Figure illustrates this classical picture of slip.
 In (Fig. a), a shear stress is applied to a metal cube with a top polished surface. Slip
occurs when the shear stress exceeds a critical value.
 The atoms move an integral number of atomic distances along the slip plane, and a
step is produced in the polished surface (Fig. b).
 When we view the polished surface from above with a microscope, the step shows up
as a line, which we call a slip line. If the surface is then repolished after slip has
occurred, so that the step is removed, the slip line will disappear (Fig. c).
 Because of the translational symmetry of a crystal lattice, the crystal structure is
perfectly restored after slip has taken place provided that the deformation was
uniform.
 Note that slip lines are due to changes in surface elevation and that the surface must
be suitably prepared for microscopic observation prior to deformation if the slip lines
are to be observed. Figure below shows straight slip lines in copper.

Figure: Straight Slip lines in copper (500 x)

The fine structure of slip lines has been studied at high magnification by means of the electron
microscope. What appears as a line, or at best a narrow band at 1,500 diameters' magnification in
the optical microscope can be resolved by the electron microscope as discrete slip lamellae at
20,000 diameters, shown schematically in Fig. below.

Figure Schematic drawing of the line structure of a slip band, (a) Small deformation; (b) large
deformation
 Slip occurs most readily in specific directions on certain crystallographic planes.
 Generally, the slip plane is the plane of greatest atomic density (Table below) and the slip
direction is the closest-packed direction within the slip plane.
 The slip plane together with the slip direction establishes the slip system
Table: Atomic density of low index planes

Effect of Slip on the structure and Mechanical Properties of materials

Slip refers to the movement of dislocations within a crystalline material. Dislocations are linear
defects in the crystal lattice that allow atoms to move relative to each other. When slip occurs,
dislocations move through the crystal lattice, causing plastic deformation in the material.

The effect of slip on the structure and mechanical properties of materials is significant:

1. Plastic deformation: Slip is the primary mechanism by which metals deform plastically. When
stress is applied to a material, dislocations move and rearrange, allowing the material to deform
without breaking. This process is essential for shaping metals through processes like forging,
rolling, and extrusion.
2. Strength: Slip can both strengthen and weaken materials depending on various factors such as
the crystal structure, temperature, and impurity content. Generally, slip increases the strength of a
material by hindering the movement of dislocations. However, too much slip can lead to
dislocation entanglement and a decrease in strength.

3. Ductility: Slip influences the ductility of materials, which is their ability to deform plastically
before fracturing. Proper slip allows for significant ductility in metals, enabling them to undergo
extensive deformation before failure.

4. Work hardening: As dislocations move during slip, they interact with other dislocations and
obstacles in the lattice, causing the material to become harder and stronger. This process is
known as work hardening or strain hardening and contributes to increased strength and resistance
to further deformation.

5. Fatigue resistance: Excessive slip can lead to fatigue failure in materials by promoting the
formation and propagation of fatigue cracks. Proper control of slip is essential to improving a
material's fatigue resistance.

In summary, slip plays a crucial role in the mechanical behavior of materials, influencing their
strength, ductility, work hardening behavior, and fatigue resistance. Understanding and
controlling slip mechanisms are essential for designing materials with desirable mechanical
properties.

HOT WORKING PROCESSES

Modem forging processes account for a large part of basic metalworking. Often a forged or
rolled shape is subjected to a secondary process of metalworking, such as stamping or
machining. To many the term hot working means that the metal is deformed or worked at an
elevated temperature; however, hot working technically means that the metal is worked at a high
enough temperature that no plastic deformation, strain hardening, or cold working takes place.
One way to check for hot working is to measure the hardness or strength of the metal before and
after the working process; if no strengthening occurs, it is hot working. Another way to think of
true hot working is that before the metal cools, the temperature is high enough that it anneals the
metal and removes the cold work that would otherwise have occurred.
Examples of hot working processes are; hot rolling,

Hot Working Mechanical working processes which are done above recrystallisation temperature
of the metal are know as hot working processes. Some metals, such as lead and tin, have a low
recrystallisation temperature and can be hot-worked even at room temperature, but most
commercial metals require some heating. However, this temperature should not be too high to
reach the solidus temperature; otherwise the metal will burn and become unsuitable for use. In
hot working, the temperature of completion of metal working is important since any extra heat
left after working aid in grain growth. This increase in size of the grains occurs by a process of
coalescence of adjoining grains and is a function of time and temperature. Grain growth results
in poor mechanical properties. If the hot working is completed just above the recrystallisation
temperature then the resultant grain size would be fine. Thus for any hot working process the
metal should be heated to such a temperature below its solidus temperature, that after completion
of the hot working its temperature will remain a little higher than and as close as possible to its
recrystalization temperature.
Effect of Hot Working on Mechanical Properties of Metals
1. This process is generally performed on a metal held at such a temperature that the metal does
not work-harden. A few metals e.g., Pb and Sn (since they possess low crystallization
temperature) can be hot worked at room temperature.
2. Raising the metal temperature lowers the stresses required to produce deformations and
increases the possible amount of deformation before excessive work hardening takes place.
3. Hot working is preferred where large deformations have to be performed that do not have the
primary purpose of causing work hardening.
4. Hot working produces the same net results on a metal as cold working and annealing. It does
not strain harden the metal.
5. In hot working processes, compositional irregularities are ironed out and nonmetallic
impurities are broken up into small, relatively harmless fragments, which are uniformly
dispersed throughout the metal instead of being concentrated in large stress-raising metal
working masses.
6. Hot working such as rolling process refines grain structure. The coarse columnar dendrites of
cast metal are refined to smaller equiaxed grains with corresponding improvement in mechanical
properties of the component.
7. Surface finish of hot worked metal is not nearly as good as with cold working, because of
oxidation and scaling.
8. One has to be very careful as regards the temperatures at which to start hot work and at which
to stop because this affects the properties to be introduced in the hot worked metal.
9. Too high a temperature may cause phase change and overheat the steel whereas too low
temperature may result in excessive work hardening.
10.Defects in the metal such as blowholes, internal porosity and cracks get removed or welded
up during hot working.
11. During hot working, self-annealing occurs and recrystallization takes place immediately
following plastic deformation. This self-annealing action prevents hardening and loss of ductility.
ROLLING
Rolling is the most widely used deformation process. It consists of passing metal between two
rollers, which exert compressive stresses, reducing the metal thickness. Where simple shapes are
to be made in large quantity, rolling is the most economical process. Rolled products include
sheets, structural shapes and rails as well as intermediate shapes for wire drawing or forging.
Circular shapes, ‘I’ beams and railway tracks are manufactured using grooved rolls.

HOT ROLLING
Initial breakdown of an ingot or a continuously cast slab is achieved by hot rolling. Mechanical
strength is improved and porosity is reduced. The worked metal tends to oxidize leading to
scaling which results in a poor surface finish and loss of precise dimensions. A hot rolled product
is often pickled to remove scale, and further rolled cold to ensure a good surface finish and
optimize the mechanical properties for a given application.

FORGING
In this operation, a single piece of metal, normally hot, is deformed mechanically by the
application of successive blows or by continuous squeezing. Forged articles range in size from
nuts and bolts, hip replacement prostheses and crankshafts to (traditionally) gun barrels. Most
engineering metals and alloys can be forged readily and include most steels, aluminum and
copper alloys and certain titanium alloys including 6-4 (Ti-6 wt.%Al-4 wt.% V) and 6-2-4-2 (Ti-
6 wt.%Al-2 wt.%Sn4 wt.%Zn-2 wt.% Mo). Strain-rate and temperature-sensitive materials, such
as magnesium and nickel based super alloys, may require more sophisticated forging processes
such as radial forging. Forged articles have excellent mechanical properties, combining fine
grain structure with strengthening through strain hardening.
A force is brought to bear on a metal slug or perform placed between two (or more) die halves.
The metal flows plastically into the cavity formed by the die and hence changes in shape to its
finished shape. Examples of the machinery used include hydraulic presses, mechanical presses
and hammers. Possible geometries range from simple spherical blocks and discs to intricate
components incorporating thin webs, holes, cavities, pockets and ribs. As metal flow is restricted
by the die contours, closed-die forging can produce complex shapes and higher tolerances than
the shapes and tolerances achieved using open-die forging processes.

Open-die forging is performed between flat dies with no pre-cut profiles. The dies do not confine
the metal laterally during forging. Deformation is achieved through movement of the work piece
relative to the dies. Parts up to thirty meters in length can by hammered or pressed into shape in
this way. Opendie forging comprises many process variations, enabling an extremely broad range
of shapes and sizes to be produced. Unlike rolling operations, which generally produce
continuous plates, sheets, strip, or various structural cross-sections, forging operations produce
discrete parts. In addition to round, square, rectangular, hexagonal bar and other basic shapes,
open-die processes can produce:
 Spindles or rotors, whose diameter increases or decreases at multiple locations along the
longitudinal axis.
 Hollows cylindrical in shape, usually with length much greater than the diameter of the
part.
 Ring-like parts resembling washers or approaching hollow cylinders in shape, depending
on the height: wall thickness ratio.
EXTRUSION
In extrusion, a bar or metal is forced from an enclosed cavity via a die orifice by a compressive
force applied by a ram. Since there are no tensile forces, high deformations are possible without
the risk of fracture of the extruded material. The extruded article has the desired, reduced cross-
sectional area, and also has a good surface finish so that further machining is not needed.
Extrusion products include rods and tubes with varying degrees of complexity in cross section.

Examples of metals that can be extruded include lead, tin, aluminum alloys, copper, brass and
steel. The minimum cross-sectional dimensions for extruded articles are approximately 3 mm in
diameter for steel and 1 mm in diameter for aluminum. Some metals such as lead alloys and
brass lend themselves to extrusion rather than drawing or rolling.
Hot extrusion is carried out at a temperature T of approximately 0.6Tm and the pressures
required range from 35 to 700 MPa. Under these demanding conditions, a lubricant is required to
protect the die. Oil and graphite lubricants function well at temperatures up to 150°C, but borate
glass or hexagonal boron nitride powders are favored at higher temperatures where carbon-based
lubricants oxidize.
Cold extrusion is performed at temperatures significantly below the melting temperature of the
alloy being deformed, and generally at room temperature. The process can be used for most
materials, provided that sufficiently robust machinery can be designed. Products of cold
extrusion include aluminium cans, collapsible tubes and gear blanks.

Cold Working of Metal

Cold working of a metal is carried out below its recrystallisation temperature. Although normal
room temperatures are ordinarily used for cold working of various types of steel, temperatures up
to the recrystallisation range are sometimes used. In cold working, recovery processes are not
effective.

Cold working processes, also known as cold forming or cold deformation, refer to the processes
by which metal materials are shaped or altered at temperatures below the recrystallization point.
These processes are typically done at room temperature or slightly elevated temperatures, and
they can include various techniques such as cold rolling, cold drawing, cold forging, cold
extrusion, and cold spinning.

Cold working processes offer several advantages, including improved mechanical properties,
better surface finish, and increased dimensional accuracy of the final product. This is because the
metal material undergoes plastic deformation without the need for high temperatures, which can
lead to better control over the shaping process and result in a more uniform grain structure.

Cold rolling is a common cold working process in which a metal sheet or strip is passed through
a series of rollers to reduce its thickness and increase its strength. Cold drawing involves pulling
a metal rod or wire through a die to reduce its diameter and improve its surface finish. Cold
forging is a process in which metal is shaped under high pressure in a die to produce complex
parts with high strength. Cold extrusion involves forcing a metal billet through a die to create a
desired shape, while cold spinning is a process in which a metal disc is spun on a lathe to form a
hollow part.

Overall, cold working processes are widely used in various industries, including automotive,
aerospace, and construction, to produce high-quality metal components with tight tolerances and
improved mechanical properties. They are cost-effective and efficient methods for shaping metal
materials, making them a popular choice for manufacturing a wide range of products.

Drawing of Wire and Tube

In cold working processes, drawing refers to pulling a metal wire or tube through a series of dies
to reduce its diameter or change its shape. This can be done to improve the material's mechanical
properties or achieve tighter tolerances. Would you like a step-by-step explanation or a diagram
illustrating the process?

Sure, here's a detailed explanation of the drawing process for wire and tube in cold working:

1. **Material Selection**: Cold drawing is typically performed on materials like steel, copper,
aluminum, and various alloys. These materials possess good ductility, allowing them to undergo
significant deformation without fracturing.

2. **Preparation**: The process begins with selecting a raw material in the form of wire or tube.
The material may undergo pre-treatments such as annealing to improve its ductility and reduce
hardness.

3. **Drawing Setup**: The setup consists of a drawing machine equipped with a series of dies.
Each die has a progressively smaller diameter, allowing for incremental reduction in the size of
the wire or tube. The machine also includes tensioning devices to control the drawing speed and
maintain uniformity.

4. **Drawing Process**:
- **Feeding**: The raw material (wire or tube) is fed into the drawing machine.
- **Drawing**: The material is pulled through a series of dies, each with a smaller diameter
than the previous one. As the material passes through each die, its diameter is reduced, and its
length is increased.
- **Annealing (Optional)**: In some cases, intermediate annealing may be performed to
restore ductility and reduce the risk of material failure due to work hardening.
- **Final Drawing**: The process is repeated until the desired diameter or shape is achieved.

5. **Finishing**: After the final drawing step, the wire or tube may undergo additional processes
such as straightening, cutting, or surface treatments to meet specific requirements.

6. **Quality Control**: Throughout the process, quality control measures such as dimensional
inspection, surface inspection, and mechanical testing are performed to ensure that the final
product meets the required specifications.

7. **Applications**: Cold drawing is used to produce various products such as wires for cables,
springs, fasteners, and tubes for automotive components, hydraulic systems, and precision
instruments.

8. **Advantages**:
 - Improved mechanical properties: Cold working increases the material's strength and hardness.
- Tighter tolerances: Cold drawing allows for precise control over the dimensions and surface
finish of the final product.
- Material savings: Cold working can produce parts with minimal material waste compared to
other manufacturing processes.

Overall, cold drawing is a versatile and widely used process for producing high-quality wire and
tube products with precise dimensions and mechanical properties.

 Rolling of Plate, sheet or strip

Rolling of plate, sheet, or strip is a manufacturing process used to reduce the thickness of
metal plates, sheets, or strips while maintaining their width. This process is commonly
used in industries such as automotive, aerospace, construction, and manufacturing. Here's
a detailed explanation of the rolling process:

1. Material Selection: The process begins with selecting a suitable metal alloy based on
the desired properties and application requirements. Common materials include steel,
aluminum, copper, and their alloys.

2. Preparation: The raw material is prepared by heating it to the appropriate temperature

to increase its ductility and facilitate deformation during rolling. This process is known as
preheating or heating for rolling.

3. Rolling Mill Setup: The material is then fed into a rolling mill, which consists of a
series of rollers arranged in a specific configuration. The rolling mill can be either a hot
rolling mill or a cold rolling mill, depending on the temperature at which the rolling is
performed.

4. Rolling Process:
 Hot Rolling: In hot rolling, the material is heated above its recrystallization temperature
and passed through the rolling mill. The rollers exert compressive forces on the material,
causing it to deform and reduce in thickness. Hot rolling is typically used for thick plates
or sheets and is characterized by higher processing temperatures and faster production
rates.
 Cold Rolling: In cold rolling, the material is rolled at room temperature or slightly
above. Cold rolling produces smoother surfaces and tighter dimensional tolerances
compared to hot rolling. It is commonly used for thin sheets, strips, or foils where precise
dimensions and surface finish are critical.

5. Rolling Mill Components:

 Rollers: The rollers exert compressive forces on the material, causing it to deform.
Depending on the rolling process and material, different types of rollers such as flat,
grooved, or profiled rollers may be used.
 Rolling Stands: The rollers are mounted on rolling stands, which provide support and
alignment during the rolling process.
 Cooling Systems (for hot rolling): In hot rolling, cooling systems are used to control the
temperature of the rollers and prevent overheating of the material.
 Tension Control Systems: Tension control systems are used to maintain proper tension in
the material as it passes through the rolling mill, ensuring uniform deformation and
preventing wrinkles or defects.

6. Finishing Operations: After rolling, the material may undergo additional operations
such as trimming, edge conditioning, or surface treatment to achieve the desired final
dimensions, surface finish, and mechanical properties.

7. Quality Control: Throughout the rolling process, quality control measures such as
dimensional inspection, surface inspection, and mechanical testing are performed to
ensure that the final product meets the required specifications.

8. Applications: Rolled plates, sheets, and strips are used in a wide range of applications,
including automotive body panels, structural components, roofing materials, packaging,
and consumer electronics.

Overall, the rolling process is a versatile and widely used method for producing metal
plates, sheets, and strips with precise dimensions, surface finish, and mechanical
properties. It offers flexibility in terms of material selection, thickness reduction, and
production volume, making it essential in various industries.

 Heading
In cold working processes, such as cold rolling or cold forging, the term "heading" refers
to a specific operation aimed at shaping the material, typically metal, by applying force at
room temperature or slightly above. Here's a detailed explanation:

1. Purpose: Heading is primarily employed to deform metal workpieces into desired

shapes or forms without subjecting them to high temperatures. This cold working method
allows for precise shaping and dimensional accuracy while enhancing the material's
mechanical properties.

2. Process Overview: The heading process involves placing a metal workpiece, often a
rod or wire, into a heading machine or a heading die. The machine exerts significant
compressive forces on the workpiece, causing it to deform plastically and take the shape
of the die cavity.

3. Types of Heading: There are various types of heading operations, including:

 Upsetting: Also known as "heading up" or "upsetting," this process involves increasing
the diameter of a metal rod by compressing it axially.
 Extrusion: In extrusion heading, a metal billet is forced through a die to produce a desired
shape, such as a rod, tube, or profile.
 Cold Heading: Specifically refers to the process of forming metal parts by shaping a slug
or blank in a cold heading machine. This process is commonly used in the production of
fasteners, such as bolts, screws, and rivets.

4. Materials: Cold heading is typically performed on ductile metals, such as steel,

aluminum, copper, and their alloys. These materials exhibit good formability at room
temperature, allowing for effective deformation without the need for high temperatures.

5. Advantages:
- Dimensional Accuracy: Cold heading enables precise control over the dimensions and
tolerances of the final product.
- Improved Mechanical Properties: Cold working can enhance the material's strength,
hardness, and overall mechanical properties due to strain hardening.
- Cost-Efficiency: Since cold heading eliminates the need for heating and subsequent
cooling processes, it can be more cost-effective compared to hot forming methods.

6. Applications: Cold heading finds widespread applications in various industries,

including automotive, aerospace, construction, and electronics, where components with
intricate shapes and high strength are required.

In summary, heading in cold working processes involves shaping metal workpieces at

room temperature or slightly above using compressive forces, resulting in precise
components with enhanced mechanical properties.

 Coining and Embossing in cold working processes

Coining and embossing are two specific techniques within cold working processes that
are used to shape metal without heating it. Here's a detailed explanation of each:

1. Coining:

 Purpose: Coining is a cold working process used to produce precise and intricate details
on metal surfaces. It is often employed to create features such as logos, text, or decorative
patterns.

 Process Overview: In coining, a metal workpiece is placed between two dies, one of
which contains the desired pattern or design. High pressure is then applied to the dies,
causing the metal to flow and conform to the shape of the die cavities. This results in the
transfer of the design onto the metal surface with high accuracy.

 Materials: Coining is commonly performed on ductile metals such as gold, silver, copper,
aluminum, and their alloys. These materials can easily deform under pressure without
fracturing.
  Applications: Coining is widely used in the production of coins, medals, jewelry, and
various decorative metal components where intricate designs or patterns are desired.

2. Embossing:

 Purpose: Embossing is a cold forming process used to create raised or sunken patterns on
metal surfaces for decorative or functional purposes.

 Process Overview: In embossing, a metal workpiece is placed between a male and a

female die, with the desired pattern engraved on one or both of the dies. Pressure is then
applied to the dies, causing the metal to deform and replicate the pattern. The male die
creates a raised pattern, while the female die creates a sunken pattern.

 Materials: Embossing can be performed on a wide range of metals, including steel,

aluminum, brass, and copper. The suitability of the material depends on its ductility and
ability to hold the embossed shape without cracking or spring back.

 Applications: Embossing is commonly used in various industries for decorative purposes,

such as adding logos, textures, or patterns to metal sheets, foils, packaging materials, and
automotive trim components.

In summary, coining and embossing are cold working processes used to shape metal
surfaces without the need for heating. Coining is primarily used to create precise designs
or patterns, while embossing is used to produce raised or sunken features for decorative
or functional purposes. Both techniques offer versatility and can be applied to a wide
range of metals and applications.

The stages in drawing a typical component (Cup)

Drawing a typical component, such as a cup, involves several stages in the manufacturing
process. Here's an explanation of each stage:

1. Material Selection:
- The first stage involves selecting the appropriate material for the cup based on factors such as
desired properties (e.g., strength, corrosion resistance), manufacturing requirements, and cost
considerations. Common materials for cups include stainless steel, aluminum, glass, ceramic, and
plastic.

2. Blanking:
Blanking is the process of cutting the initial shape of the cup from a flat sheet of material. A
punch and die set are used to shear the material into the desired shape, typically a flat disc or
circular blank, which will serve as the starting point for the cup-forming process.

3. Cup Drawing:
In this stage, the blank undergoes cup drawing, where it is formed into the shape of a cup using a
press or a similar forming machine. The blank is placed over a die cavity, and a punch is used to
push the material into the die cavity, causing it to take on the shape of the cup. This process may
involve multiple drawing operations to achieve the desired depth and shape.

4. Ironing (Optional):
- In some cases, particularly for cups with thin walls, an additional ironing operation may be
performed to reduce the thickness of the cup walls and improve dimensional accuracy. Ironing
involves applying radial compressive forces to the cup while it is constrained between the punch
and die, causing the material to flow axially and thin out.

5. Trimming:
- After the cup has been formed, excess material, known as the "flash," may remain around the
perimeter of the cup. Trimming is the process of removing this excess material to achieve the
final shape and dimensions of the cup. Trimming may be performed using a cutting tool, laser, or
other suitable methods.

6. Surface Finishing:
Once the cup has been formed and trimmed, surface finishing operations may be performed to
improve the appearance, texture, and functionality of the cup. This may include processes such
as polishing, buffing, coating, or decorating the cup with designs or logos.

7. Quality Inspection:
Throughout the manufacturing process, quality inspections are conducted to ensure that the cup
meets the specified requirements for dimensions, surface finish, and structural integrity. This
may involve visual inspections, dimensional measurements, and mechanical testing.

8. Packaging:
Finally, the finished cups are packaged and prepared for distribution to customers. Packaging
may involve placing the cups in protective containers or wrapping them in packaging materials
to prevent damage during transit.

By following these stages, manufacturers can efficiently produce high-quality cups that meet the
desired specifications and performance requirements. Each stage plays a crucial role in the
overall manufacturing process, from shaping the initial blank to finishing the final product.

 Annealing of cold worked materials

Annealing is a crucial process used to restore the ductility, toughness, and other
mechanical properties of cold-worked materials, such as metals, that have become
hardened or brittle due to plastic deformation at room temperature or slightly above.
Here's a detailed description of the annealing process for cold-worked materials:

1. Purpose:
- Cold working processes, such as rolling, drawing, or forging, can introduce
dislocations and defects into the crystal structure of metals, leading to increased hardness
and reduced ductility. Annealing aims to relieve internal stresses, recrystallize the
material, and restore its original properties, making it more suitable for further processing
or use.
 2. Process Overview:
Annealing typically involves heating the cold-worked material to a specific temperature,
holding it at that temperature for a predetermined period, and then slowly cooling it
down. The heating temperature and holding time depend on factors such as the material
type, degree of cold work, and desired properties.

3. Stages of Annealing:
 Recovery: At lower temperatures, the material undergoes recovery, where some of the
dislocations and defects introduced during cold working begin to rearrange and anneal
out. This stage helps reduce internal stresses and increase the material's ductility.
 Recrystallization: As the temperature is further increased, recrystallization occurs, where
new strain-free grains nucleate and grow within the material. This process replaces the
deformed grains formed during cold working with new, smaller grains, resulting in
improved mechanical properties.
 Grain Growth: If the material is held at elevated temperatures for an extended period,
grain growth may occur, wherein the newly formed grains grow larger. This can affect the
material's mechanical properties, so annealing is often controlled to avoid excessive grain
growth.

4. Heating and Cooling Rates:

- The heating and cooling rates during annealing are critical to achieving the desired
microstructure and properties. Slow heating and cooling rates are typically preferred to
minimize thermal gradients and prevent thermal shock, which could lead to cracking or
distortion of the material.

5. Types of Annealing:
 Full Annealing: Involves heating the material to a temperature above its recrystallization
temperature, followed by slow cooling. This process results in complete recrystallization
and softening of the material.
 Process Annealing: Similar to full annealing but performed at lower temperatures,
process annealing is used to relieve stresses and improve ductility without significant
grain growth.
 Stress Relief Annealing: Involves heating the material to a temperature below its
recrystallization temperature to relieve internal stresses induced by cold working. The
material is then cooled slowly to room temperature.

6. Applications:
Annealing is widely used in industries such as manufacturing, aerospace, automotive, and
construction to improve the formability, machinability, and mechanical properties of
cold-worked materials before further processing or fabrication.

In summary, annealing is a critical process used to restore the mechanical properties of

cold-worked materials by relieving internal stresses, promoting recrystallization, and
refining the microstructure. By carefully controlling the heating and cooling parameters,
 manufacturers can tailor the annealing process to achieve the desired properties for
specific applications.

The phenomenon of grain growth

Grain growth is a phenomenon that occurs during heat treatment processes such as annealing. It
involves the increase in size of the individual grains within a polycrystalline material, typically
accompanied by a reduction in the total number of grains. Here's a detailed explanation of the
phenomenon:

1. Nucleation: Grain growth starts with the nucleation of new grains, often at grain boundaries or
other defects within the material. These new grains form as a result of the rearrangement of
atoms and the migration of grain boundaries.

2. Grain Boundary Migration: Once nucleated, grains grow by the migration of their boundaries.
This migration occurs due to the movement of atoms along the grain boundaries. Atoms at the
grain boundaries have higher mobility compared to those within the grains, allowing them to
rearrange and promote boundary movement.

3. Driving Force: The driving force for grain growth is the reduction in total grain boundary
energy. Smaller grains have a higher proportion of grain boundaries per unit volume compared to
larger grains. Therefore, by growing larger, the total grain boundary area decreases, reducing the
overall energy of the system.

4. Ostwald Ripening: Another mechanism contributing to grain growth is Ostwald ripening. In

this process, atoms from smaller grains diffuse to larger grains, leading to the coalescence of
neighboring grains and the overall increase in grain size.

5. Temperature Dependence: Grain growth rate increases with temperature because higher
temperatures provide more energy for atomic diffusion. However, excessive temperatures can
lead to abnormal grain growth, resulting in large, unevenly sized grains.

6. Influence of Alloying Elements: The presence of certain alloying elements can either inhibit or
promote grain growth. For example, solute atoms can pin grain boundaries, impeding their
migration and thereby retarding grain growth. On the other hand, some elements may segregate
to grain boundaries, lowering their energy and promoting grain growth.

7. Effects on Material Properties: Grain growth can significantly influence the mechanical
properties of materials. Larger grains generally lead to improved ductility and toughness but may
reduce strength and hardness. Conversely, finer grains typically enhance strength and hardness
but may decrease ductility.

In summary, grain growth is a complex phenomenon influenced by factors such as temperature,

alloy composition, and diffusion kinetics. Understanding and controlling grain growth is crucial
for tailoring the microstructure and properties of materials to meet specific engineering
requirements.
Advantages and disadvantages of hot working and cold working

Hot Working

Advantages

1. Lower Flow Stress: Metals are easier to deform at elevated temperatures due to reduced flow
stress. This allows for larger deformations and shaping without requiring as much force.

2. Improved Ductility: Heating metals increases their ductility, making them less prone to
cracking and fracturing during shaping processes.

3. Recrystallization: Hot working often induces recrystallization, which leads to refined grain
structures and improved mechanical properties, such as increased toughness and uniformity.

4. Reduced Work Hardening: Hot working minimizes work hardening effects, allowing for more
extensive shaping operations without the need for intermediate annealing.

Disadvantages

1. Oxidation: High temperatures can lead to oxidation of the metal surface, reducing its quality
and requiring additional surface treatments or protective atmospheres.

2. Dimensional Inaccuracy: Due to the high temperatures involved, hot working processes may
result in less precise dimensional control compared to cold working.

3. Equipment Cost: Hot working often requires specialized equipment such as furnaces and
presses capable of operating at elevated temperatures, which can be costly to purchase and
maintain.

4. Limited Shape Complexity: Some intricate shapes may be challenging to achieve through hot
working processes due to the reduced precision and control at high temperatures.

Cold Working

Advantages

1. Improved Strength: Cold working typically results in increased strength and hardness due to
the introduction of dislocations and strain hardening.

2. Enhanced Surface Finish: Cold working can produce smoother surface finishes and tighter
dimensional tolerances compared to hot working, making it suitable for applications requiring
high precision.

3. No Heating Required: Cold working operations can be performed at room temperature,

eliminating the need for expensive heating equipment and reducing energy costs.

4. Increased Yield Strength: Cold working increases the yield strength of the material, making it
more resistant to deformation and providing better load-bearing capabilities.

Disadvantages

1. Higher Required Forces: Cold working typically requires higher forces to deform metals due
to their increased flow stress at room temperature, necessitating robust equipment and tooling.

2. Limited Ductility: Excessive cold working can lead to reduced ductility and increased
brittleness, making the material prone to cracking and failure under certain conditions.

3. Work Hardening: Cold working induces work hardening, which can cause material
embrittlement and necessitate intermediate annealing to restore ductility and prevent cracking.

4. Limited Deformation: Cold working may impose limitations on the extent of deformation
achievable without causing material failure or surface defects, especially in metals with low
ductility.

In summary, the choice between hot working and cold working depends on factors such as
material properties, desired final properties, complexity of the shape, and cost considerations.
Each method offers distinct advantages and disadvantages that must be carefully weighed to
select the most suitable processing route for a given application.

The structural changes which occur during annealing of a cold worked material
Annealing of a cold worked material involves several structural changes:

1. Recovery: Dislocations rearrange themselves to form low-energy configurations, reducing

internal stresses.

2. Recrystallization: New strain-free grains form to replace the cold-worked structure, reducing
the dislocation density.

3. Grain Growth: The newly formed grains grow in size, resulting in larger, more uniform grains,
which improves mechanical properties such as ductility and toughness.

Overall, annealing helps relieve internal stresses, improve ductility, and enhance the material's
mechanical properties.
Reasons for the control of variables in heat treatment
Control of variables in heat treatment is essential to ensure consistency in the final product.
Some reasons for controlling variables in heat treatment include:
1. Achieving desired properties: By controlling variables such as temperature, time, and cooling
rate during heat treatment, manufacturers can achieve specific material properties such as
hardness, strength, toughness, and ductility. Consistency in these variables ensures that the
material meets the desired specifications and performance requirements.

2. Minimizing distortion: Heat treatment processes can often lead to distortion or warping of the
material. By controlling variables such as heating and cooling rates, manufacturers can minimize
distortion and maintain the dimensional stability of the material.

3. Preventing cracking: Rapid heating or cooling rates can also lead to cracking in the material.
By controlling variables such as temperature gradients and cooling rates, manufacturers can
prevent cracking and ensure the integrity of the material.

4. Improving efficiency: Controlling variables in heat treatment allows manufacturers to

optimize the process parameters, reduce cycle times, and improve overall efficiency in the
production process.

5. Consistency and repeatability: Controlling variables ensures that each batch of material
undergoes the same heat treatment process, leading to consistent and repeatable results. This is
particularly important in industries where precision and quality control are critical.

Overall, controlling variables in heat treatment helps manufacturers achieve the desired material
properties, minimize defects, and improve the overall quality and efficiency of the production
process.

Heating Rate
The heating rate in heat treatment refers to the speed at which the material is brought up to the
desired temperature during the heating phase of the process. Controlling the heating rate is
crucial in achieving consistent and desirable material properties. Here are some key aspects to
consider about the heating rate in heat treatment:

1. Uniformity of Heating: The heating rate plays a significant role in ensuring uniform heating of
the material. If the heating rate is too slow, it can lead to uneven heating, causing variations in
material properties. On the other hand, a too rapid heating rate can create thermal gradients
within the material, leading to stress, distortion, or cracking. By carefully controlling the heating
rate, manufacturers can achieve uniform and controlled heating throughout the material.

2. Transformation Behavior: Different materials undergo phase transformations at specific

temperatures during heat treatment. The heating rate can influence the kinetics of these
transformations. For example, in processes like austenitization, the heating rate can affect the
formation of the desired microstructure. Controlling the heating rate allows for precise control
over phase transformations, resulting in the desired material properties.

3. Minimization of Distortion: Rapid heating rates can cause thermal gradients within the
material, leading to distortion or warping. By controlling the heating rate, manufacturers can
minimize thermal stresses and distortion, ensuring dimensional stability and integrity of the
material.

4. Energy Efficiency: Optimizing the heating rate can contribute to energy efficiency in the heat
treatment process. By selecting an appropriate heating rate based on the material and process
requirements, manufacturers can minimize energy consumption while still achieving the desired
material properties.

5. Process Control: Consistent control of the heating rate is essential for process repeatability and
quality control. By establishing predetermined heating rates for different materials and processes,
manufacturers can ensure consistent results batch after batch.

In summary, controlling the heating rate in heat treatment is essential for achieving uniform
heating, controlling phase transformations, minimizing distortion, ensuring energy efficiency,
and maintaining process control. By carefully adjusting and monitoring the heating rate,
manufacturers can optimize the heat treatment process to achieve the desired material properties
efficiently and effectively.

Soaking temperature and time

Soaking temperature and time are critical factors in the heat treatment process that play a
significant role in determining the final material properties. Here's an explanation of soaking
temperature and time in the context of heat treatment:

Soaking Temperature:
 The soaking temperature refers to the temperature at which the material is held for a
specific period during the heat treatment process. It is the temperature at which the
material is maintained to ensure that the entire section reaches the desired temperature for
the required transformation.
 The soaking temperature is crucial as it determines the phase transformations that occur
within the material. Different materials and processes require specific soaking
temperatures to achieve the desired microstructure and properties.
 The soaking temperature is typically controlled and monitored using furnaces or other
heating equipment to ensure that the material remains at a constant temperature
throughout the holding period.
 Controlling the soaking temperature is essential to prevent underheating or overheating of
the material, which can lead to incomplete transformations, uneven properties, or material
defects.

Soaking Time:
 Soaking time, also known as the holding time, refers to the duration for which the
material is held at the soaking temperature during the heat treatment process.
 The soaking time is critical as it allows sufficient time for the material to undergo the
necessary phase transformations, diffusion processes, or precipitation reactions required
to achieve the desired properties.
  The soaking time is determined based on the material composition, size, shape, and the
specific heat treatment process being employed. It can range from minutes to hours,
depending on the requirements of the process.
 Controlling the soaking time is essential to ensure that the material receives adequate heat
treatment to achieve the desired microstructure and properties. Insufficient soaking time
may result in incomplete transformations, while excessive soaking time can lead to grain
growth or other unwanted effects.

In summary, controlling soaking temperature and time in the heat treatment process is
crucial for achieving the desired material properties, ensuring uniform heating, and
controlling phase transformations. By carefully selecting and monitoring the soaking
temperature and time parameters, manufacturers can optimize the heat treatment process
to produce materials with the desired mechanical, physical, and metallurgical properties.

cooling rate
Cooling rate is a critical parameter in the heat treatment process that determines the final
material properties. The cooling rate refers to the speed at which the material is cooled from the
soaking temperature to a specific lower temperature during the heat treatment process. Here's an
explanation of the importance of controlling the cooling rate in heat treatment:

1. Effect on Microstructure: The cooling rate plays a significant role in determining the resulting
microstructure of the material. Different cooling rates can lead to variations in grain size, phase
transformations, and the distribution of phases within the material. By controlling the cooling
rate, manufacturers can achieve the desired microstructure that influences the mechanical and
physical properties of the material.

2. Quenching: In processes like hardening or quenching, a rapid cooling rate is often required to
achieve high hardness and strength in the material. Quenching involves cooling the material from
a high temperature to room temperature quickly to trap the desired phases within the
microstructure. The cooling rate during quenching is critical in preventing the formation of
undesired phases and ensuring the transformation of austenite to martensite.

3. Distortion and Cracking: Controlling the cooling rate is essential to prevent distortion,
warping, and cracking in the material. Rapid cooling rates can introduce thermal stresses that
may lead to distortion or cracking. By selecting an appropriate cooling rate based on the material
type and thickness, manufacturers can minimize these issues and ensure dimensional stability.

4. Toughness and Ductility: The cooling rate can also affect the toughness and ductility of the
material. Slower cooling rates are often preferred for improving toughness, while rapid cooling
rates can result in higher hardness but lower ductility. By adjusting the cooling rate,
manufacturers can fine-tune these properties to meet specific application requirements.

5. Process Control: Consistent control of the cooling rate is essential for process repeatability and
quality control. By establishing predetermined cooling rates for different materials and heat
treatment processes, manufacturers can ensure consistent results batch after batch.
In summary, controlling the cooling rate in heat treatment is crucial for achieving the desired
microstructure, mechanical properties, and overall material performance. By carefully selecting
and monitoring the cooling rate parameters, manufacturers can optimize the heat treatment
process to produce materials with the desired properties efficiently and effectively.

Furnace Atmosphere
The furnace atmosphere in heat treatment refers to the environment, or gas composition, within
the heat treating furnace during the heat treatment process. The atmosphere surrounding the
material being treated can have a significant impact on the final properties of the material. Here
are some key points about the furnace atmosphere in heat treatment:

1. Protective Atmosphere: One of the primary functions of the furnace atmosphere is to protect
the material from oxidation or other forms of surface degradation during the heating process. In
the absence of a protective atmosphere, certain materials are susceptible to oxidation, which can
lead to surface defects or changes in material properties. For example, a neutral gas atmosphere
such as nitrogen or argon is often used to prevent oxidation during heat treatment.

2. Carburizing or Nitriding Atmosphere: In certain heat treatment processes, such as carburizing

or nitriding, specific gases are introduced into the furnace atmosphere to introduce carbon or
nitrogen into the surface of the material. These processes are used to improve surface hardness,
wear resistance, and other properties of the material.

3. Reducing Atmosphere: A reducing atmosphere is used in heat treatment processes to prevent

the formation of oxides or to reduce existing oxides on the material's surface. For instance, a
hydrogen-rich atmosphere is frequently employed as a reducing atmosphere in certain heat
treatment processes.

4. Controlling Chemical Reactions: The furnace atmosphere can also play a role in controlling
certain chemical reactions that occur during heat treatment. By adjusting the composition of the
atmosphere, manufacturers can influence the kinetics and outcomes of reactions within the
material, ultimately affecting the final material properties.

5. Uniformity: Maintaining a consistent furnace atmosphere is essential to ensure uniform

heating and treatment of the material. Variations in the atmosphere composition can lead to
uneven heat distribution, resulting in inconsistent material properties.

Overall, the furnace atmosphere is a crucial parameter in heat treatment processes as it can
significantly impact the final properties of the material. By selecting and controlling the
appropriate furnace atmosphere for a specific heat treatment process, manufacturers can optimize
the treatment process to achieve the desired material properties and performance.

Classification of controlled Atmosphere Applications into Protective and Chemically Active

Controlled atmosphere applications in heat treatment can be classified into two main categories:
protective atmosphere and chemically active atmosphere. Here is a classification of these two
types of atmospheres in heat treatment processes:

1. Protective Atmosphere:
Purpose: The primary purpose of a protective atmosphere is to shield the material being heat
treated from reactions with atmospheric gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, or moisture. This helps
prevent oxidation, decarburization, and other forms of surface degradation.
Examples of Protective Atmospheres:
Inert Gases: Inert gases such as nitrogen, argon, and helium are commonly used as protective
atmospheres in heat treatment processes. These gases are chemically stable and do not react with
the material, providing a shield against oxidation.
Vacuum: Vacuum furnaces create a low-pressure environment devoid of reactive gases, serving
as a protective atmosphere by eliminating the presence of oxygen or other contaminants.

2. Chemically Active Atmosphere:

Purpose: Chemically active atmospheres are designed to interact with the material being heat
treated to induce specific chemical reactions, alter surface properties, or introduce alloying
elements.
Examples of Chemically Active Atmospheres:
Carburizing Atmosphere: Carburizing involves introducing carbon into the surface of the
material to increase hardness and wear resistance. Common carburizing atmospheres include
hydrocarbons like methane or propane.
Nitriding Atmosphere: Nitriding introduces nitrogen into the material surface to improve
hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Common nitriding atmospheres include
ammonia or dissociated ammonia gas.
Carbonitriding Atmosphere: Carbonitriding combines carburizing and nitriding to introduce
both carbon and nitrogen into the material surface for enhanced properties.

By classifying controlled atmosphere applications into protective and chemically active

atmospheres, manufacturers can tailor their heat treatment processes to achieve specific material
properties and surface characteristics. Selecting the appropriate atmosphere based on the desired
outcome of the heat treatment process is crucial in optimizing the treatment and achieving the
desired material properties.

Physical and chemical principles of controlled atmosphere with respect to Oxidation

A controlled atmosphere in heat treatment refers to the regulation of the composition of gases
surrounding the material being processed to prevent undesirable reactions such as oxidation.
Here's how a controlled atmosphere affects oxidation, in terms of physical and chemical
properties:

Physical properties:
1. Oxygen concentration: In a controlled atmosphere, the concentration of oxygen is minimized
to prevent oxidation. Oxygen is a highly reactive gas that can cause materials to oxidize or rust
when exposed to air. By controlling the oxygen concentration, the material is protected from
oxidation.
2. Gas composition: The composition of the controlled atmosphere can be adjusted based on the
specific requirements of the heat treatment process. In some cases, inert gases such as nitrogen,
argon, or helium are used to displace oxygen and create a non-reactive environment that inhibits
oxidation.

Chemical properties:
1. Redox reactions: Oxidation is a chemical reaction in which a material loses electrons, resulting
in the formation of oxides. In a controlled atmosphere, the reduction potential is controlled by
adjusting the composition of gases. This helps to prevent the oxidation of the material by
maintaining a balance between oxidizing and reducing conditions.

2. Formation of protective layers: In certain heat treatment processes, a controlled atmosphere

can be used to create a protective layer on the surface of the material. For example, in
carburizing, a controlled atmosphere of hydrocarbons can be used to introduce carbon into the
surface of the material, forming a protective layer that increases hardness and wear resistance.

3. Prevention of scale formation: Oxidation of certain metals at high temperatures can lead to the
formation of oxide scales on the surface, which can adversely affect the properties of the
material. By controlling the atmosphere, the formation of oxide scales can be minimized,
ensuring that the material retains its desired properties.

Overall, a controlled atmosphere in heat treatment plays a crucial role in preventing oxidation by
adjusting the physical and chemical properties of the environment around the material. This
helps to maintain the integrity of the material and achieve the desired properties during the heat
treatment process.
Physical and chemical principles of controlled atmosphere with respect to Carburization or
decarburization control
Carburization and decarburization are surface treatment processes that involve introducing or
removing carbon from the surface of a material to enhance its properties. A controlled
atmosphere plays a critical role in regulating these processes. Here are the physical and chemical
principles of controlled atmosphere with respect to carburization or decarburization control:

1. Physical Principles:

Gas Composition: The gas composition in the controlled atmosphere is crucial for carburization
or decarburization control. In carburizing, hydrocarbon gases such as methane or propane are
commonly used to introduce carbon into the material surface. By adjusting the composition and
flow rate of these gases, the carbon content at the surface can be precisely controlled. In contrast,
for decarburization control, the gas composition must be devoid of carbon-containing molecules,
preventing the loss of carbon from the material surface.

Temperature Control: The temperature of the heat treatment process impacts the rate and extent
of carburization or decarburization. A controlled atmosphere helps regulate the temperature
within the furnace, ensuring that the material reaches the desired carburization or decarburization
temperature range. Consistent temperature control is essential to achieve uniform surface
treatment across the material.

2. Chemical Principles:

Redox Reactions: Carburization and decarburization are redox reactions that involve the
exchange of carbon atoms with the material surface. In carburization, carbon atoms diffuse into
the material surface, forming carbides that enhance hardness and wear resistance. The controlled
atmosphere provides a favorable environment for these reactions by adjusting the concentration
of carbon-containing gases. Decarburization, on the other hand, involves the loss of carbon
atoms due to oxidation. A controlled atmosphere with low oxygen content prevents excessive
decarburization by minimizing the presence of oxidizing agents.

Diffusion Control: The controlled atmosphere influences the diffusion of carbon atoms into or
out of the material surface. In carburizing, the atmosphere promotes the diffusion of carbon
atoms from the gas phase into the material, enhancing surface properties. Decarburization is
inhibited by maintaining a protective atmosphere that hinders the diffusion of carbon atoms out
of the material surface.

Overall, through the manipulation of physical parameters such as gas composition and
temperature, as well as the understanding of chemical principles like redox reactions and
diffusion control, a controlled atmosphere enables precise regulation of carburization and
decarburization processes in heat treatment. This ensures the desired surface properties and
material performance are achieved effectively and consistently.

Physical and chemical principles of controlled atmosphere with respect to Nitrogen

Potential Control
Nitrogen potential control is a critical aspect of heat treatment processes that involve the
diffusion of nitrogen into the surface of a material to enhance its properties. A controlled
atmosphere plays a key role in regulating nitrogen potential. Here are the physical and chemical
principles of controlled atmosphere with respect to nitrogen potential control:

1. Physical Principles:

Gas Composition: The gas composition of the controlled atmosphere is crucial for nitrogen
potential control. Nitrogen-containing gases such as ammonia or dissociated ammonia are
commonly used to introduce nitrogen into the material surface. By adjusting the composition and
flow rate of these gases, the nitrogen content at the surface can be precisely controlled. The
presence of other gases in the atmosphere can impact nitrogen potential, and their concentration
needs to be regulated.

Temperature Control: Temperature plays a significant role in the diffusion of nitrogen into the
material surface. A controlled atmosphere helps regulate the temperature within the heat
treatment furnace, ensuring that the material reaches the desired temperature range for nitrogen
diffusion. Consistent temperature control is essential for achieving uniform nitrogen potential
across the material.
2. Chemical Principles:

Redox Reactions: Nitrogen potential control involves redox reactions that facilitate the
incorporation of nitrogen into the material. Nitrogen diffusion into the material surface forms
nitrides, which can enhance hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. The controlled
atmosphere provides a conducive environment for these reactions by adjusting the concentration
of nitrogen-containing gases and regulating the presence of potential oxidizing agents that could
affect nitrogen potential.

Diffusion Control: The controlled atmosphere influences the diffusion of nitrogen atoms into the
material surface. Nitrogen potential control is essential to balance the rate of nitrogen diffusion
and the resulting microstructural changes in the material. By adjusting the atmosphere
composition and temperature, the diffusion of nitrogen can be controlled to achieve the desired
surface properties.

Overall, through the manipulation of physical parameters such as gas composition and
temperature, as well as the understanding of chemical principles like redox reactions and
diffusion control, a controlled atmosphere enables precise regulation of nitrogen potential in heat
treatment processes. This ensures that the material surface attains the desired nitrogen content
and associated properties effectively and consistently.

Atmosphere Generation from Exothermic source

Atmosphere generation from an exothermic source involves the production of a controlled
atmosphere for heat treatment processes using a chemical reaction that releases heat as a
byproduct. This exothermic reaction produces gases that create a specific environment within a
heat treatment furnace. Here is a description of the process of generating atmosphere from an
exothermic source:

1. Composition of Exothermic Atmosphere:

- The composition of the exothermic atmosphere typically involves a mixture of gases that are
generated through the chemical reaction. Common components include hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, methane, and nitrogen. These gases play a role in creating a reducing or neutral
atmosphere suitable for various heat treatment processes.

2. Chemical Reaction:
- The generation of the atmosphere from an exothermic source involves a chemical reaction
that produces the desired gases. An example of an exothermic reaction commonly used for
atmosphere generation is the reaction between natural gas (methane) and air in the presence of a
catalyst. This reaction produces a mixture of gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and
nitrogen.

3. Heat Generation:
The exothermic nature of the reaction results in the release of heat as a byproduct. This heat can
be utilized to maintain the desired temperature within the heat treatment furnace. The heat
generated from the exothermic reaction can help in achieving and maintaining the required
temperature for the heat treatment process.

4. Control and Regulation:

- The generation of atmosphere from an exothermic source requires careful control and
regulation of the reaction parameters such as gas flow rates, temperature, and composition. By
adjusting these parameters, manufacturers can tailor the atmosphere to suit the specific
requirements of the heat treatment process, such as carburizing, annealing, or hardening.

5. Benefits:
Atmosphere generation from an exothermic source offers several benefits, including cost-
effectiveness, simplicity, and the ability to create a consistent atmosphere for heat treatment
processes. The use of an exothermic reaction for atmosphere generation can provide a reliable
and controlled environment that is conducive to achieving the desired material properties.

Overall, atmosphere generation from an exothermic source involves the utilization of a chemical
reaction that releases heat to produce gases for creating a controlled atmosphere in heat treatment
processes. This method offers a reliable and effective way to generate the desired atmosphere for
various heat treatment applications.
Atmosphere Generation from Stripped Exothermic
Atmosphere generation from a stripped exothermic source involves the production of a
controlled atmosphere for use in various heat treatment processes. The process typically involves
the following steps:

1. Exothermic gas generation: A stripped exothermic gas generator is used to produce the
exothermic gas mixture. This generator typically consists of a chamber filled with a mixture of a
hydrocarbon fuel, such as natural gas or propane, and a specific amount of air or oxygen. The
combustion of the fuel in the presence of air generates heat and gases, including carbon dioxide,
water vapor, and nitrogen.

2. Stripping process: The generated exothermic gas mixture is then passed through a stripping
process to remove unwanted components, such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen, which can
negatively affect the heat treatment process. The stripping process typically involves passing the
gas mixture through a bed of materials that selectively absorb or react with the unwanted
components, leaving behind a purified gas stream.

3. Atmosphere control: The stripped exothermic gas is then fed into the heat treatment furnace,
where it creates a controlled atmosphere to protect the material being processed. The
atmosphere's composition is crucial for achieving the desired material properties, such as
oxidation resistance, carburizing, or neutral atmosphere conditions. The composition of the
atmosphere can be adjusted by controlling the flow rates of the exothermic gas and other gases,
such as nitrogen or hydrogen.

4. Monitoring and adjustments: Throughout the heat treatment process, the atmosphere
composition is continuously monitored using sensors and analyzers to ensure consistency and
uniformity. Any deviations from the desired atmosphere conditions can be corrected by adjusting
the flow rates of the gases or making changes to the stripping process.

In summary, atmosphere generation from a stripped exothermic source involves the production
of a controlled atmosphere using an exothermic gas generator, stripping unwanted components,
and maintaining the desired atmosphere composition during the heat treatment process. Proper
control of the atmosphere is essential for achieving consistent and high-quality heat treatment
results.

Atmosphere Generation from Endothermic from propane and from natural gas
Endothermic gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen (H2),
nitrogen (N2), and water vapor (H2O) that is commonly used in heat treatment processes such as
carburizing, carbonitriding, and neutral hardening. This gas mixture is produced by the reaction
of a hydrocarbon fuel, such as propane or natural gas, with air in the presence of a catalyst at
high temperatures. The composition and properties of endothermic gas can vary depending on
the specific process requirements and equipment used.

Propane is a commonly used hydrocarbon fuel for generating endothermic gas in heat treatment
processes. When propane is burned in the air, it produces carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor
(H2O), and heat. This combustion reaction is exothermic, meaning it releases heat. To convert
this exothermic reaction into an endothermic reaction, the gases are passed through a catalyst bed
at high temperatures, typically around 1600-1800°F (870-980°C). The catalyst promotes
reactions that convert the exothermic gases into endothermic gases by absorbing heat from the
surroundings.

The endothermic gas generated from propane typically has a composition of approximately 20-
40% CO, 40-60% H2, 0-20% CO2, and small amounts of N2 and H2O. This gas mixture is
suitable for various heat treatment processes that require a reducing atmosphere with controlled
carbon potential.

Natural gas can also be used as a feedstock for generating endothermic gas in heat treatment
processes. Natural gas is primarily composed of methane (CH4) and can produce a similar
composition of endothermic gas when reacted with air and passed through a catalyst at high
temperatures.

The use of propane or natural gas for generating endothermic gas in heat treatment processes
offers the advantages of flexibility, efficiency, and control over the atmosphere composition.
Endothermic gas provides a protective atmosphere that prevents oxidation and decarburization of
the metal parts being heated, ensuring consistent and uniform heat treatment results. Proper
control and monitoring of the gas composition, temperature, and flow rates are essential to
ensure the effectiveness and reliability of the heat treatment process.