Cosmology- study of how the Universe began
Big Bang Theory- theory in astronomy stating
that universe originated in an explosion from a
single point of nearly infinite energy density
Singularity- there was no where, when, or what
Inflation- continual increase in the size
Annihilation- to destroy the substance
Recombination- process of binding electrons to
ionized protons and nuclei forming neutral
atoms
Red Shift- displacement of the celestial body
toward longer wavelengths
Formation of Light Elements
(Big Bang/Primordial Nucleosynthesis)
The first 3 minutes of the Big Bang focused on
expansion and cooling which formed Hydrogen
(1H), Helium (2He), and Lithium (3Li)
The second cosmological event is Stellar
Nucleosynthesis, which formed Beryllium (4Be)
until Iron (26Fe) through the combination of
protons and neutrons from the nuclei of a
lighter elements
Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Mosely -arranged the
elements in the periodic table by using atomic
number as basis
WHAT MAKES UP THE UNIVERSE?
-73% Hydrogen (H)
-25% Helium (He)
-2% Other Elements
*Composed of 92 elements from Hydrogen (H)
to Uranium (U)
BIG BANG THEORY
1. Begun as an infinitely hot and dense initial
singularity
2. Began to rapidly expand through inflation and
expanded faster than the speed of light
3. Electrons started to bind to ionized protons
and nuclei forming atoms through
recombination
4. Bound particle no longer scattered photon so
light and energy moved freely across space,
hence known as the “dark ages”
5. Gravity caused the atoms to collapse into one
another and form stars, galaxies, & matter
6. Using instruments enabled to detect
redshifted light from other galaxies implying
that galaxies are moving farther away from ours
7. Universe cooled as it expanded
STAGES OF THE BIG BANG THEORY
1. Big Bang Singularity
2. Inflation
3. Nucleosynthesis
4. Recombination
STELLAR NUCLESYNTHESIS
-process by which elements are formed within
the stars as a result of nuclear fusion
NUCLEAR FUSION
-process by which multiple nuclei joined
together to form a heavier nucleus
Elements heavier than Iron (Fe) are formed
during supernova explosions
FORMATION OF THE HEAVY ELEMENTS
1. Triple Alpha Process -Triple fusion of Alpha
particle (❑4 He ) and results in the formation of
12
❑ C atom
2. Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen (CNO) Cycle- uses
12 4
❑ C as catalyst to form more ❑He atoms
3. Alpha Ladder -fusion of ❑4 He to other
elements continues all the way to iron
-Most of the isotopes which occur naturally are
stable
-A few naturally occurring isotopes and all of
the man-made isotopes are unstable
-Unstable isotopes can become stable by
releasing different types of particles
-This process is called radioactive decay and the
elements which undergo this process are called
radioisotopes
-Products of this decay are called daughter
isotopes
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
1. Alpha Particle (α)
-Mass # decreases by 4
-Atomic #decreases by 2
226 222 4
88 Ra −−> 86Rn+ 2 He
2. Beta Particle (Electron) (β)
-Mass # stays the same(Electrons have no mass)
-Atomic # increases by 1
218 218 0
84 Po −−> 85 At + −1e
3. Gamma Ray (ϒ)
-There is no change in mass or atomic number
234 234
Tℎ −−> 90Tℎ+ 90¿ ¿ϒ
-During radioactive decay an unstable nuclei of
an isotope emits particles and releases energy,
to become a stable isotope
Molecule-group of two or more atoms held
together by chemical bonds
Polarity-the distribution of electric charge
around atoms, chemical groups, or molecules
2 FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE POLARITY OF
MOLECULES
1. Based on electronegativity
2. Geometrical shape of the molecule through
the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
(VSEPR) theory
3. By nature
Metallic Bond (Metal + Metal)
Ionic Bond (Metal + Nonmetal)
Ionic Bond ≥ 1.7
-electrons are transferred from the less
electronegative element to more
electronegative element
Polar Covalent Bond 0.5-1.6
-electrons are unequally shared; they are pulled
towards the more electronegative element
Nonpolar Covalent Bond < 0.5
-electrons are equally shared
LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE
-straightforward way of representing the
number and type of bonds in a molecule
-Nonpolar if structure is symmetrical
-Polar if structure is assymmetical
VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIT REPULSION
(VSEPR) THEORY
-used to predict the 3D shape of a molecule
-the molecular shape depends on the repulsion
between the valence shell electron pairs of the
central atom
-also known as Molecular Geometry

1. Determine the central atom of a molecule

2. Count how many valence electrons the
central atom has
3. Count how many valence electrons the side
atoms have
4. Create the appropriate Lewis structure of
the molecule
5. Using Lewis structure as a guide, determine
the appropriate VSEPR shape for the molecule
6. Note how many electrons are shared and
unshared

Intermolecular Forces
-attractive forces that holds molecules together
1. Ion-Dipole
-charged ion+polar molecule
2. Hydrogen Bond
-Hydrogen+Fluorine,Oxygen,Nitrogen
-All three may or may not be present
3. Dipole-Dipole
-polar+polar
-0.5-1.6
4. London Dispersion
-nonpolar+nonpolar