GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL

nd
ENGINEERS (2 Edition)
A.C. Mclean
C.D. Gribble
 TOPIC COVERAGE

1. Minerals & Rocks

2. Superficial Deposits
3. Distribution of Rocks at and below the surface
4. Subsurface (Ground) Water
5. Geological Exploration of an engineering site
6. Rocks and Civil Engineering
7. Principal Geological Factors
 INTRODUCTION

The document explains the role of the engineer

in the systematic exploration of a site, the
relevance of geology to civil engineering, the
science of geology.
 ROLE OF THE ENGINEER

The engineer must have enough understanding of geology to know

how and when to use the expert knowledge of consultants, and to be
able to read their reports intelligently, judge their reliability, and
appreciate how the conditions described might affect the project.
The engineer must also have a firm grounding in expressing his
conclusions and decisions in figures, and in conforming to a code of
practice.
 RELEVANCE OF THE GEOLOGY

Most civil engineering projects involve some excavation of

soils and rocks, or involve loading the Earth by building on
it. The feasibility, the planning and design, the
construction and costing, and the safety of a project may
depend critically on the geological conditions where the
construction will take place.
 SCIENCE OF GEOLOGY

Geology is the study of the solid Earth. It includes the

investigation of the rocks forming the Earth and of how
they are distributed, their constituents, their chemistry,
their history, and the processes that have formed them.
Geophysics is the twin science of geology that uses special
methods to explore the distribution of rocks of deeper
levels.
MINERALS AND ROCKS
What is the difference between minerals and
rocks?
- Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic substances with a definite chemical composition,
while rocks are collections of one or more minerals.
- Rocks vary in composition and properties depending on the minerals present in them. To
identify a rock, it is necessary to know which minerals are present in it.
- Two techniques are employed to identify minerals: studying a hand specimen of the mineral
or rock using a hand lens, and examining a thin slice of the mineral under a microscope.
- The properties of a rock are determined by the minerals in it and the manner in which the
minerals are arranged relative to each other (texture of the rock).
- Weathering can affect the engineering properties of a rock.
Why is it important to identify the minerals
present in a rock?
Identifying the minerals present in a rock is important for several reasons:
1. Understanding composition and properties: In order to understand how rocks vary in
composition and properties, it is necessary to know the variety of minerals that commonly occur in
them.
2. Rock identification: To identify a rock, it is necessary to know which minerals are present in it.
3. Engineering properties: The nature and properties of a rock are determined by the minerals in it.
4. Influence of weathering: Weathering affects the engineering properties of a rock, and knowing
the mineral composition can help assess its susceptibility to weathering.
5. Resource evaluation: Identifying minerals in a rock can help determine its economic value, as
certain minerals may be commercially valuable.
What are the two techniques used to
identify minerals?

1.Examining a hand specimen of the mineral or the rock in which it

occurs using a hand lens (×8 or ×10) and observing diagnostic
features.
2.Examining a thin slice of the mineral, ground down to a thickness
of 0.03 mm, using a microscope. The rock slice is mounted in
transparent resin for examination.
TERMINOLOGIES

1. Plutonic:
Refers to rocks that have crystallized relatively deeply within the Earth's crust at depths of at least a
few kilometers. They are coarse-grained, except near a chilled margin where they have been rapidly
cooled. They are commonly acid or intermediate in composition, but basic and ultrabasic bodies of this
form also occur.
2. Graded bedding:
A sedimentary structure where a sediment containing a wide range of grain sizes is sorted vertically,
resulting in a continuous gradation from coarse particles at the bottom of the sedimentary layer to fine
grains at the top. This is commonly seen in sandstones and greywackes deposited by turbidity currents.
3. Cross-bedding:
A sedimentary structure commonly found in sandstones and feldspathic sandstones (arkoses) that
have been deposited in shallow water or as dunes by the action of wind. It is characterized by successive
minor layers that are inclined or oblique to the main bedding plane.
4. Mineral:
A naturally occurring inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition, normally uniform
throughout its volume. Rocks, on the other hand, are collections of one or more minerals. In order to
understand rocks' composition and properties, it is necessary to know the variety of minerals that
commonly occur in them.
5. Hand lens:
A technique used to identify minerals by studying a hand specimen of the mineral or the
rock in which it occurs using a hand lens with a magnification of ×8 or ×10. This allows
for the observation of diagnostic features.
6. Microscope:
A technique used to identify minerals by examining a thin slice of the mineral, ground
down to a thickness of 0.03 mm, using a microscope. The rock slice is mounted in
transparent resin for observation.
7. Biotite:
A mineral that usually crystallizes from a magma containing water at a late stage in
solidification. It is common in igneous rocks rich in silica, as well as in sediments and
metamorphic rocks. Biotite is mined for use as an insulating material in certain electrical
appliances.
8. Pegmatitic texture:
A texture that characteristically occurs in veins of very acid igneous rock called
pegmatite. It allows for the formation of economically important minerals and can result
in individual crystals achieving a size well beyond what is considered "coarse-grained."
SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS
 SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS

These are the surface deposits and soils that cover

the bedrock. They can be classified into residual
deposits (formed in situ by weathering) and
transported deposits (carried by natural agents such
as wind, water, ice, etc.).
How do geologists and engineers define the term
"soil" differently?
Geologists and engineers define the term "soil" differently.
Geologists use the term "soil" to refer to any rock waste produced by the
disintegration of rocks at the surface through weathering processes.
These untransported surface deposits are called sedimentary or residual
deposits.
On the other hand, engineers use the term "soil" more widely and
loosely. They define "soil" as any superficial or surficial deposit that can
be excavated without blasting. This definition includes both transported
sediments and residual deposits.
What are some examples of superficial
deposits that engineers consider as "soil"?

Engineers consider both transported sediments and residual

deposits as "soil“.
Transported sediments can include water-transported sediments
(alluvium) and wind-transported material.
What are the processes involved in transforming
solid rock into unconsolidated rock waste?
1. Mechanical disintegration: This process occurs at the surface when water, wind, ice, and rock
fragments exert pressure on the rock, causing it to break apart.
2. Chemical reactions: Chemical reactions take place between the original minerals of the rock, near-
surface water, and oxygen in the atmosphere. These reactions result in the formation of new minerals
that are stable under the given conditions.
3. Weathering: Weathering refers to the decay of rock with little or no transport of the products. It is a
process where rock or its products are gradually broken down.
4. Erosion: Erosion occurs when the products of weathering are simultaneously removed. It involves the
transportation of weathered rock or its products to new locations.
5. Burial and other processes: Over time, the products of weathering and erosion can be buried and
transformed into layers of sedimentary rock through processes such as compaction and cementation.
TERMINOLOGIES:
1. Regolith: The mantle of surface deposits and soils overlying the bedrock. It may vary in
thickness and has a density less than that of rock.
2. Soil (geological definition): Any rock waste produced by the disintegration of rocks at
the surface by weathering processes, which has formed in situ. Also known as sedentary or
residual deposits.
3. Soil (engineering definition): Any superficial or surficial deposit that can be excavated
without blasting. This definition includes transported sediments as well as residual deposits.
4. Sedimentary deposits: Untransported surface deposits formed by the disintegration of
rocks at the surface by weathering processes.
5. Alluvium: Water-transported sediments.
6. Wind-transported material: Sediments transported by wind.
7. Calcrete: Precipitates of carbonate materials deposited by migrating
solutions.
8. Silcrete: Precipitates of siliceous materials deposited by migrating solutions.
9. Ferricrete: Precipitates of ferruginous materials deposited by migrating
solutions.
10. Soil layers terminology: Different terms used to describe the boundaries
between individual soil layers, such as O (organic layer), A (organic-rich layer),
B (layer of maximum deposition), C (weathered parental material), R (parental
material/substratum), and more.
11. Sesquioxides: Accumulations of ir or o, which represent illuvial or
residual sesquioxides, respectively.
12. Calcium sulphate or gypsum: Accumulation of cs.
13. Calcium carbonate: Accumulation of ca.
14. Concretions or nodules: Accumulation of cn.
15. Organic matter or humus: Accumulation of h.
16. Soluble salts: Accumulation of sa.
17. Weathering: Rock decay without transport of the products.
18. Erosion: Rock decay with simultaneous removal of the rock or its
products.
19. Solum: The uppermost three layers of the soil, consisting of organic
debris, the A horizon (leached layer), and the B horizon (illuviated layer).
20. C horizon: Weathered parental material below the solum.
21. R horizon: Fresh parental material below the C horizon.