SCIENCE REVIEWER Q2

Module 1
Electronic Structure of Atoms
o The bond strength between atoms determines the state.

Plasma – a form of matter in which many of the electrons wander around freely among
the nuclei of the atoms
CHARACTERISTICS USED TO DESCRIBE:
o Mass – a measure of the amount of something on an object. (grams, kilograms)
o Weight – measure of the forces of gravity acting on an object.
o Density – mass of an object divided by its volume
- Mass / volume (M/V)
Oil is less dense than water.

S – sphere
P – principal
D – diffuse
F – fundamental

Electronic structure of Matter

o Solubility – degree to which a substance dissolves in a solvent to make a
solution
o Color – determined by wavelengths of light that is absorbed / reflected.
o Atom – basic unit of matter

DIFFERENT ATOMIC MODELS

Neils Bohr – Planetary model
- like a solar system, where the electron is found only in specific circular paths, or
orbits, around the nucleus.
- The nucleus (positively charged) is surrounded by
negatively charged electro orbs.
- Moved in fixed orbitals or shells
- Each orbit has a fixed energy - carries a fixed amount of
energy and does not lose energy as long as it stays in its given
orbit.
- An electron that has received enough energy can jump to a
higher energy level.
- energy is emitted in the form of light → electrons return to a
lower energy level. - Exceeds 1 electron.
Outside nucleus → higher energy level
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o Through mathematical calculations, scientists explained that there is only a probability that the
electron can be found in a certain volume in space around the nucleus. This volume or region of
space around the nucleus where the electron is most likely to be found is called an atomic
orbital.

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Ernest Rutherford - Nuclear model

- Orbit has 1 electron per orbit.
- Doesn’t have a fixed position.
- The protons and neutrons, which comprise nearly all of the mass of the atom, are
located in the nucleus at the center of the atom.
- The total charge of the electrons exactly balances the positive charged protons.
- It could not explain the chemical properties of elements.

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Erwin Schrodinger (1926) - Quantum mechanical model

- Conceived electrons as undulations on an atom as the electrons move.
- They do not have a fixed defined position.
- Describes the movement of electrons as the standing wave.
- An electron is imagined to be a cloud of negative charge having a certain geometrical
shape. The electrons are arranged in principal or main energy levels that consist of one
or more sublevels.
- nucleus at the center around which the electrons move.
- This model describes a region in space where the electron is most likely to be found.
- Conceived electrons as undulations of matter, that is described as the wave behavior of
the electron.

First ( 20 ) Elements of the Periodic Table:

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1) ( H ) hydrogen
2) ( He ) helium
3) ( L ) lithium
4) ( Be ) beryllium
5) ( B ) boron
6) ( C ) carbon
7) ( N ) nitrogen
8) ( O ) oxygen
9) ( F ) fluorine
10) ( Ne ) neon
11) ( Na ) sodium
12) ( Mg ) magnesium
13) ( Al ) aluminum
14) ( Si ) silicon
15) ( P ) phosphorous
16) ( S ) sulfur
17) ( Cl ) chlorine
18) ( Ar ) argon
19) ( K ) potassium
20) ( Ca ) calcium

MODULE 2 - CHEMICAL BONDING

-
1. Valence electrons are the electrons directly involved in forming bonds to form
compounds, the outermost electrons
2. Metals have low electronegativity and non-metals have high electronegativity
because this property plays an important role in forming compounds.
3. Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons, the
higher its value, the higher its tendency to attract electrons.
4. Ionization energy is the energy needed to pull or remove one or more electron/s
from a neutral atom. The lower the ionization energy the easier it is to remove its
valence electrons.
5. Lewis symbol is composed of the symbol of the element and dots which represent the
number of valence electrons of an atom that can easily be determined through the
family/group number in the Periodic Table of Elements.
6. Atoms are stable if their electrons have the same kind of arrangement as that of noble
gases, where the s and p orbitals are filled with electrons except for helium, where only
the s orbitals are filled up.
7. All the noble gases except for helium have 8 valence electrons.
8. Octet Rule tells you that elements gain or lose or share electrons to achieve the
electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas. Thus after chemical bonding, elements
become isoelectronic with the nearest noble gas in the periodic table.
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9. Metals have low ionization energy, thus these electrons tend to transfer or loose
electrons.
10. Non-metals have high ionization energy. They have a greater tendency to attract
electrons towards themselves. Thus non-metals tend to gain electrons.
11. Two types of covalent bond, polar and non polar.
12. Non-polar, 0.4 or less
13. Polar, less than 1.9 but more than 0.4
14. Ionic bond involves complete transfer of electrons, thus, lons are formed.
15. lonic compounds conduct electricity when in solution but not in solid phase, generally
soluble in water and in polar solvents.
16. A covalent bond involves the sharing of electrons that results in the formation of covalent
compound whose representative particle is a molecule. As a whole, a molecule does not
carry a charge.
17. Covalent compounds are non-conductors of electricity in the solid phase and in solution.
They have a lower melting temperature than compounds formed by ionic bonds,
18. Metallic bonding exists in metals through the attraction between the freely- moving
valence electrons and the positively charged metal atom.
19. The valence electrons of these metal atoms are usually called "sea of electrons."
20. Thermal and electrical conductivity in metals are due to the free flow of electrons in the
solid phase. Aside from these properties, metals are lustrous, malleable, and ductile.
These properties are related to the kind of bonding metals have.

METALLIC BONDING
● Bond Formation - e are delocalized among metal atoms
● Occurs between - 2 metals
● Type of Structure - Electron Sea
● Physical state - solid
● Melting point - Very high
● Soluble in Water - No
● Electrical conductivity - Yes
● Other properties:
● Melleable - physical property of a solid to bend or be hammered into another
shape without breaking
● Ductility - a metals amenability to being stretched without breaking
○ Metals are malleable and ductile, rather than brittle, as a result of the
non-directional nature of metallic bonds. The attractive forces exerted by the
positive metal ions for the mobile electrons occur in all directions. This means
that layers of atoms can move past one another without disrupting the force
between the positive ions and the negative sea of electrons.
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● Conducts Electricity - When an electric field is applied to a metal, one end of

the metal becomes positive and the other becomes negative. Since the electrons
are free to move, all the electrons experience a force toward the positive
end. The movement of electrons
● Conduction of Heat - Electrons are able to gain kinetic energy in hotter areas of
the metal and are able to quickly transfer it to other parts of the metal lattice
because of their freedom of movement. Heat causes the electrons to move
faster and the 'bumping' of these electrons with each other and the protons
transfers the heat.
● High Melting Point - The generally high melting points indicate that metallic
bonding is quite strong. Melting points increase with an increase in the number
of valence electrons to the sea, since there is a greater attractive force between
the cations and the electrons.
● Luster - Metals are lustrous because when light strikes the surface of the
metal, the loosely-bound electrons near the surface move and reflect the
light giving the metal a shiny appearance.
● Density - relatively high densities indicate that metals are closely packed.
Metallic lattices are packed together. Cationic network - bond between metals

STRUCTURE OF METALS
- Electrostatic forces of attraction between the positively charged cations and the
negatively charged electrons hold the lattice together.
- A metal is therefore a seen as a rigid framework of cations immersed in a 'sea' of
electrons that serve as the cement holding the three-dimensional cationic network
together - Metallic bonding.

STOICHIOMETRY
○ A branch of chemistry that deals with the quantitative measurements that can be
determined using balanced chemical equations
○ May involve mole and mass relationship which can be used in many
experimental calculations in the laboratory
● Mole
○ A unit of measurement for the quantity of a substance
○ Symbol = n ; Unit = mol/mole
○ Used in representing the amount of substance in different conditions
○ 1 mole = 6.02 x 10²³
- 6.02 x 10²³ is Amadeo Avogadro’s Number
○ Equations:
■ Equation 1: n= m/MM
■ Equation 2: n= p/AN
■ Wherein;
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● n = number of moles of any substance

● m = mass of the substance
● MM = molar mass of the substance (can be used interchangeably)
● AN = Avogadro’s Number

Module 3: Organic Compounds

THE CARBON COMPOUNDS:
● Organic Compounds:
○ Groups of compounds that contain the element carbon.
○ Contains carbon and hydrogen combined with other elements.
○ Produced by plants and animals
○ Carbon atoms are able to form 4 covalent bonds
■ Properties:
● Odor: Amoy
● Viscosity: fluid’s resistance to flow
● Volatility: measure of the tendency of substance to
evaporate.
● Flammability: ability to burn.

● HYDROCARBONS
○ Organic compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen ONLY.
○ ALKANES: CnH2(n) +2 (SINGLE BOND)
○ ALKENES: CnH2(n) (DOUBLE BOND)
○ ALKYNES: CnH2(n) -2 (TRIPLE BOND)
■ Meth:1
■ Eth: 2
■ Prop: 3
■ But: 4
■ Pent: 5
■ Hex: 6
■ Hept: 7
■ Oct: 8
■ Non: 9
■ Dec: 10

● Example:
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○ PROPane: C3H8

○ PROPene: C3H6

○ PROPyne: C3H4