6.

1 Digestion and absorption

› Mouth: chemical and physical digestion occur. A bolus is formed because of mixing
with saliva.
› Esophagus: movement of food by peristalsis
› Stomach: mix with acids and protein digestion
› Pancreas: produces amylase lipase and proteases
› Liver: produce surfactants in bile that emulsify lipids into droplets stored in the
gallbladder
› Small intestine: site of digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and neutralizes
chime from the stomach. Nutrients are absorbed.
› Large intestine: absorption of minerals and water

Mechanical digestion
Peristalsis is the principal movement mechanism in the esophagus but it also occurs in
stomach and gut. Continuous segments of longitudinal small muscle contract and relax and
it occurs in a caudal direction.
Segmentation is the contraction and relaxation of circular smooth muscle in the intestines.
Segmentation moves chyme in both directions allowing for better nixing of food with
digestive juices. The bidirectional propulsion of chyme can slow down the overall
movement.
Chewing happens in the mouth. Food is initially broken down by the grinding action of
teeth. The tongue pushes the food towards the back of the throat where it travels down the
esophagus as a bolus. The epiglottis prevents the bolus from entering the trachea.
Churning happens is the stomach. It is the mixing of food with digestive juices. Food is
digested withing the stomach and turned into a creamy paste, the chyme. The chyme
enters the small intestine in the duodenum absorption will occur.

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up the rate of reaction in chemical digestion.
Enzymes in digestion catalyze hydrolysis reactions.
Pancreatic juice secreted into small intestine contains enzymes such as:
Endopeptidases – example trypsin (breaks apart the peptide bond between amino acids in
polypeptides)
Lipases – catalyzes the hydrolysis of lipids (triglycerides and phospholipids)
Amylases - digestion of starch.
Pancreatic juice is alkaline (basic) to allow enzymes to work at an optimal pH (around 7-8 in
the small intestine).
The pancreas is controlled by the enteric nervous system and through hormones produced
and released by the stomach.
Enzymes are produced by ribosomes in the pancreatic gland cells, excreted by exocytosis
into smaller ducts, which converge to form the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic juice flows
through the pancreatic duct into the lumen of the small intestine

Villi are projections that make the surface of the small intestine look highly folded. These
projections increase the surface area available for absorption.
Microvilli are small hair-like projections attached to the villi to further increase surface
area.
The outermost layer of the villi is thin epithelial cells to allow nutrients to easily move
across a short distance into the blood.
A dense network of capillaries close to the epithelium allows a large amount of
nutrients to move into the blood.
Lacteals, which are a part of the lymphatic system, run up the middle of the villi. The lacteal
allows for the absorption of the products of lipid digestion which are not easily absorbed by
the capillaries.

The small intestine is composed of four main tissue layers, which are (from outside to
centre):
Serosa – a protective outer covering composed of a layer of cells reinforced by fibrous
connective tissue
Muscle layer – outer layer of longitudinal muscle (peristalsis) and inner layer of circular
muscle (segmentation)
Submucosa – composed of connective tissue separating the muscle layer from the
innermost mucosa
Mucosa – a highly folded inner layer which absorbs material through its surface epithelium
from the intestinal lumen

Absorption of nutrients
Digestion of starch
Starch is a polysaccharide composed of glucose monomers
 Starch can exist in one of two forms – linear chains (amylose) or branched chains
(amylopectin)

The digestion of starch is initiated by salivary amylase in the mouth and continued by
pancreatic amylase in the intestines
 Starch digestion by amylase does not occur in the stomach as the pH is unsuitable
for amylase activity (optimal pH ~ 7)

Amylase digests amylose into maltose subunits (disaccharide) and digests amylopectin into
branched chains called dextrins
 Both maltose and dextrin are digested by enzymes (maltase) which are fixed to the
epithelial lining of the small intestine
 The hydrolysis of maltose / dextrin results in the formation of glucose monomers

6.3 Defense against infectious diseases

 Skin and mucous membranes are physical barriers against infection from pathogens.
 Skin is constantly replacing its outermost epidermal layer of skin and provides
effective protection against foreign pathogens.
 Skin also secretes a substance called sebum to lubricate the skin. The sebum also
lowers the pH of the skin, which effectively helps inhibit bacterial growth.
 Mucous membranes line the surfaces of the nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi, and
bronchioles (surfaces that are exposed to the outside environment).
 Mucous traps foreign particles and pathogens contained in the air before they reach
the lungs.
 Mucous contains lysozymes (enzymes) that can damage and kill pathogens.
 Trapped pathogens can also be expelled through the mouth or nose, or swallowed
and destroyed by the high acidity of the stomach.
 Skin and mucous membranes are examples of non-specific immunity.
Blood clotting
 Blood clotting is the process in which cuts or broken blood vessels are repaired and
sealed to prevent excessive blood loss.
 The platelets and the damaged tissue release chemical factors called clotting factors.
 The clotting factors convert the clotting protein prothrombin to its active form
thrombin (enzyme).
 The enzyme thrombin converts clotting protein fibrinogen (which is soluble) into the
insoluble fibrous protein fibrin.
 Fibrin forms a mesh at the point of the broken vessel further trapping other platelets
sealing up the damaged vessel and forming a stable clot.
 Once the damaged vessel has fully healed, the blood clot dissolves in the blood.

 Another type of non-specific immunity occurs when phagocytic leucocytes ingest and
destroy foreign pathogens.
 The main types of phagocytic leucocytes are called macrophages. When pathogens
get past the physical barriers, macrophages will engulf foreign pathogens through
endocytosis.
 Pathogens are recognized as non-self-cells.
 Once the pathogen is engulfed, lysosomes within the macrophage contain hydrolytic
enzymes that will digest and destroy the foreign pathogens.
 Basophils, neutrophils and eosinophils are also involved in the non-specific immune
response

The macrophage ingests a pathogen and places it on its surface. The macrophage will then
present the antigen to a Th-lymphocyte that will release chemicals to activate the T-helper.
The Th-lymphocyte will divide and form memory and active cells. The antigen will then be
released. The active Th-lymphocyte will release chemicals to activate B-lymphocytes. B-
lymphocytes will divide and form memory and plasma cells. Plasma cells will produce and
release antibodies.
Memory cells remain in the blood in case of second infection.
The primary response is the production of antibodies to the initial challenge by the invading
antigen. The secondary response which is much quicker because memory cells are still in the
blood occurs after a subsequent challenge by the same antigen.
An antigen is a substance on the surface of the cell membrane of a pathogen that stimulates
an immune response.
Antibodies are proteins that recognize and bind to a specific antigen as part of an immune
response.
 Antibiotics are a type of drug or chemical that inhibits the growth of microorganisms;
mainly bacteria
Antibiotics block cellular processes such as DNA replication, transcription, translation, and
cell wall formation

Since viruses lack their own metabolism. They are unable to reproduce on their own
and cannot perform protein synthesis, transcription and other metabolic functions
Antibiotics work by blocking these vital processes in bacteria, killing the bacteria, or
stopping them from multiplying. Since viruses do not perform their own metabolic
reactions antibiotics such as penicillin and streptomycin, are ineffective in treating viral
infections. Therefore, treating viruses with antibiotics is not only useless and ineffective,
but it can also create antibiotic resistance in bacterial strains

Active immunity can be acquired through vaccination. Vaccines can be administrated via
injection, oral or nasal spray. They contain a weakened version of a pathogen and they
stimulate a primary immune response. Mast cells and basophils will secrete histamines in
response to antigens or pathogens. Histamines will cause blood cells of the infected area to
dilate and increase the flow of fluid in the area. Histamines will cause allergic symptoms and
that’s why there are anti-histamine drugs that block histamine receptors.

 Blood groups such as A, B, AB and O are identified by cell surface antigens

 Rhesus (Rh) is another antigen that can be present on the surface of the blood cells,
being either Rh positive (has antigen) or Rh negative (doesn’t have antigen)
  A blood transfusion given to an individual with the wrong blood type can stimulate
an immune response called agglutination (clumping or clotting of the blood cells)
 This is followed by the destruction of the RBC (hemolysis)

› Agglutination – antibodies cause the sticking together of pathogens by attaching to

the antigens on the surface. These clumped masses of pathogens are then easily
ingested and destroyed by phagocytes
› Opsonization – antibodies make pathogens recognizable by binding to them and
linking them to phagocytes
› Toxin Neutralization – Antibodies bind to toxins produced by pathogens in the blood
plasma preventing them from affecting susceptible cells.
› Complement Activation – After a pathogen is identified by antibodies, complement
proteins in the blood plasma form a membrane attack complex that destroys the cell
membrane in the pathogen causing the cell to lyse
› Bacteria and Virus Neutralization – Antibodies can bind to the surface of viruses,
preventing them from entering host cells

Monoclonal antibodies are used for therapeutic uses. An animal is injected with an
antigen for the required antibodies. The animal will undergo a primary immune
response and the B-cell that produces antibodies will be removed from the spleen.
Myeloma(tumor) cells will be developed in a petri dish and will be mixed and fused with
B-cells to produce hybridoma that divides and form clones of antibodies.

6.4 Gas exchange

 Ventilation: The exchange of air between the atmosphere and the lungs – achieved
by the physical act of breathing
 Gas Exchange: The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and
bloodstream (via passive diffusion)
 Cell Respiration: The release of energy (ATP) from organic molecules

Gas exchange is absorbing one gas and removing another. It occurs in the alveoli.
Purpose of ventilation is to maintains the concentration gradients of O2 and CO2 between
the alveoli and the bloodstream
The alveoli must have a higher O2 and a lower CO2 concentration than the blood in order to
allow the entry of O2 in the blood and removal of CO2.

Air enters the respiratory system through the nose or mouth and passes through the
pharynx to the trachea
The air travels down the trachea until it divides into two bronchi (singular: bronchus) which
connect to the lungs
Inside each lung, the bronchi divide into many smaller airways called bronchioles, greatly
increasing surface area
Each bronchiole terminates with a cluster of air sacs called alveoli, where gas exchange
with the bloodstream occurs

Structure of an Alveolus
Alveoli function as the site of gas exchange, and hence have specialised structural features
to help fulfil this role:
 They have a very thin epithelial layer (one cell thick) to minimise diffusion distances
for respiratory gases
 They are surrounded by a rich capillary network to increase the capacity for gas
exchange with the blood
 They are roughly spherical in shape, in order to maximise the available surface area
for gas exchange

Type I pneumocytes
 Type I pneumocytes are involved in the process of gas exchange between the alveoli
and the capillaries
 They are flattened in shape and extremely thin – minimising diffusion distance for
respiratory gases
 Type I pneumocytes are amitotic and unable to replicate, however type II cells can
differentiate into type I cells if required
Type II pneumocytes
 Type II pneumocytes are responsible for the secretion of pulmonary surfactant,
which reduces surface tension in the alveoli
 They are cuboidal in shape and possess many granules

Inspiration
 Diaphragm muscles contract, causing the diaphragm to flatten and increase the
volume of the thoracic cavity
 External intercostals contract, pulling ribs upwards and outwards

Expiration
 Diaphragm muscles relax, causing the diaphragm to curve upwards and reduce the
volume of the thoracic cavity
 Internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs inwards and downwards
 Abdominal muscles contract

6.5 Neurons and synapses

Neurons transmit electrical impulses:
Sensory neurons carry impulses from receptors to CNS
Relay neurons carry impulses within the CNS
Motor neurons carry impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles and glands)
 Nerve fibres conduct electrical impulses along the length of their axons. Some of
these axons are unmyelinated, and therefore the impulse travels much slower
 Some axons are surrounded by a mixture of protein and phospholipids called
myelin that collectively form a myelin sheath
 The myelin sheath insulates the axon and greatly increases the speed of the nerve
impulse
 In between the myelin are gaps called the nodes of Ranvier
 In myelinated neurons, the impulse can jump from one node to the next. This is
called saltatory conduction
  This allows myelinated neurons to conduct impulses up to 100x faster than
unmyelinated axons

 The time period when a neuron that is not conducting a nerve impulse, but is ready
to conduct one, is called the resting potential.
 Sodium-potassium pumps pump Na+ out of the axon and K+ into the axon
 Three Na+ are pumped out of the neuron and two K+ are pumped into the neuron
 This creates a concentration gradient of Na+ (outside to in) and of K+ (inside to out)
 This means the Na+ concentration is much greater outside the neuron
 These conditions create a resting membrane potential of -70 mV inside the neuron

 Action potentials are rapid changes in membrane potentials

 If the membrane potential reaches a threshold level of -50mV depolarization occurs.
 In depolarization, voltage gated sodium channels will open and allow sodium ions to
flow into the axon leading to a membrane potential of +30mV
 In repolarization the voltage gated sodium channel will close and the voltage gate
potassium channel will open allowing potassium ions go out of the axon leading to a
potential difference >-70mV
 In the final recovery both. Voltage gated channels close leading to a potential of -
70mV(refractory period).
 A refractory period occurs after depolarization which prevent the electrical impulse
from traveling backwards along the axon
 Depolarisation at one point of the axon triggers the opening of ion channels in the
next segment of the axon

Synapses are junctions or structures between the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic membrane
of two cells in the nervous system
Neurotransmitters are chemicals diffuse across a synapse from pre-synaptic membrane to
post-synaptic membrane to send a signal to the next cell
  As the nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron, the
voltage-gated channels permeable to Ca2+ open.
 Ca2+ flows into the presynaptic neuron increasing the amount of Ca2+ in the
presynaptic neuron.
 This Ca2+ causes vesicles containing neurotransmitters to bind to the membrane and
release their neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft (space between pre and post
synaptic neuron).
 These neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptor
sites on the membrane of the post synaptic neuron.
 The binding of these neurotransmitters open ion channels allowing ions such
as Na+ to diffuse into the post synaptic neuron.
 This influx of positive charge possibly leads to an action potential and
adepolarization in the post synaptic neuron.
 The neurotransmitter is reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron or broken down in
the synapse by enzymes.

 Neonicotinoids bind to acetylcholine receptors of insects

 Acetylcholinesterase does not break down neonicotinoids therefore binding is
irreversible
 Acetylcholine now can’t bind and neural transmission is stopped
 The insects go through paralysis and then death
 A benefit to this pesticide is that it is very effective in killing pests and it is not highly
toxic to humans and mammals
 The problem is that it also effects beneficial insects such as honey bees. There is
conflicting evidence if this is the case or not

6.6 Hormones Homeostasis and Reproduction

Blood glucose concentration is carefully monitored by negative feedback mechanisms.
If blood glucose is high:
b-cells in the pancreas secrete insulin
Insulin targets liver and muscle tissue
Glucose uptake will increase
Glucose is converted into glycogen
Cell respiration will increase
Excess glucose is converted into fat
At the end glucose levels will return to normal

If blood glucose is low:

a-cells of the pancreas will secrete glucagon
Glucagon targets the liver
Stored glycogen is broken down into glucose
At the end glucose levels will return to normal

Type I diabetes:

Is an autoimmune disease characterized by the inability of the pancreas to produce insulin.

The insulin producing β-cells of the pancreas are attacked and destroyed by one’s own
immune system.

 This type of diabetes usually develops in children, but can occur at any age.
 Therefore, the body can’t convert glucose into glycogen.
 People that have type I diabetes must take insulin shots or injections.

Type II diabetes:

Occurs when the insulin receptors on certain body cells lose their ability to process or
respond to insulin.
Pancreas still produces insulin.
 Type II diabetes is usually a result of obesity, age, lack of exercise and/or genetic
predisposition.
 Type II diabetes is usually considered late onset as it usually occurs later on in life.
 Diabetes II can be treated by lifestyle and diet changes.
Thyroxin
Secreted my thyroid gland and targets most body cells
Increases metabolic rate
Increases heat and body temperature

Leptin
Secreted by adipose tissue and targets appetite control center of hypothalamus
Inhibits appetite

Melatonin
Secreted by pineal gland and targets the pituitary gland
Controls circadian rhythms
Helps control sleep

The Y chromosome (small one below) has a gene called the SRY gene that causes the
embryonic gonads to become testes and begin secreting testosterone
SRY codes for a protein called TDF (testis-determining factor) that stimulates the expression
of other genes located on the Y chromosome that cause testis development

If the SRY gene on the Y chromosome is not present in the embryo, the gonads develop
into ovaries
Estrogen and progesterone which are secreted by the mother’s ovaries and then by the
placenta, will cause the female reproductive organs to develop in the absence of
testosterone
During puberty, estrogen and progesterone cause the development of secondary sexual
characteristics in females, including breast development, menstrual cycle and pubic and
armpit hair

Menstrual cycle
From the pituitary gland:
FSH  stimulates the growth of follicles in the ovaries and promotes the thickening of the
follicle wall. It stimulates the secretion of estrogen
LH Triggers ovulation and stimulates the growth of the corpus luteum. It stimulates the
secretion of estrogen and progesterone.

From the ovaries:

Estrogen Promotes the thickening of the endometrium early (positive feedback on FSH
late and negative feedback on FSH and LH). It inhibits FSH and LH when the levels are high.
Progesterone Maintains the endometrium, negative feedback on FSH and LH(inhibits
their production)

 Generally, IVF treatment begins by taking drugs to halt the regular secretion of the
hormones FSH and LH. This, in turn, stops the secretion of progesterone and
estrogen and effectively allows the doctor to take control of the timing and egg
production of the woman’s ovaries
 The woman is then injected with large amounts of FSH to induce the production of
many Graafian follicles.
 LH is also injected to promote the release of many eggs
 The eggs are then stimulated to mature by injections of HCG
 The eggs are surgically removed from the ovary of the woman.
 Sperm is collected from the male individual.
 Many sperm (50,000-100,000) are mixed with the eggs in a petri dish.
 The sperm and eggs in the petri dish are incubated at 37ºC (body temperature).
 The eggs are analyzed for successful fertilization (two nuclei inside the egg).
 Healthy embryos are selected and are transferred into the female uterus for
implantation (up to 3 healthy embryos are transferred into the uterus to increase
the chance of implantation).

o Pregnancy test is given after about 2 weeks after

11.3 The kidney and osmoregulation
 Osmoregulators maintain a constant internal solute concentration
 Osmoconformers are animals that have a similar internal solute concentration with
the environment

Insects have a circulating fluid known as hemolymph

Osmoregulation is a form of homeostasis to keep the concentration of hemolymph or
blood within a certain range
Nitrogenous waste is created by the breakdown of amino acids and is toxic to the organism
In insects, the waste is in the form of uric acid and in mammals it is urea
Insects have Malpighian tubules to get rid of this waste
Cells in these tubules actively transport the uric acid from the hemolymph into the lumen
of the tubules
Water is then drawn into the lumen by osmosis from the hemolymph
The tubules empty into the gut

 Blood in renal artery is more oxygenated than the blood in the renal vein
 blood in renal artery contains more urea than the blood in the renal vein
 blood in renal artery contains more glucose than the blood in the renal vein
 variable water
 Toxins and other substances that are ingested and absorbed but are not yet fully
metabolized by the body are present in higher concentrations in the renal artery
than in the renal vein

 Ultrafiltration is the filtration of the blood as it enters the Bowman’s capsule

 As blood enters the kidney through the afferent arteriole it becomes a capillary
bed known as the glomerulus.
 Because of the high pressure created in the capillaries as the blood vessel become
smaller and because the glomerulus has fenestrations (small pores), large
suspended solids and solutes such as proteins are retained. Water and small solutes
such as salts, glucose and waste (urea) pass through the membrane into
the Bowman’s capsule.
 There is a membrane that separates the glomerulus and the Bowman’s capsule
called the basement membrane that prevents large molecules such as proteins from
entering the filtrate of the kidney.
 The filtrate now enters the proximal convoluted tubule.

 Selective reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule is very specific with

regards to the molecules that are reabsorbed.
 Na+ ions are pumped from the filtrate through active transport into the intercellular
space surrounding the PCT. The ions then pass into the surrounding capillaries.
 Cl- ions also leave the filtrate entering the intercellular space and then the
capillaries following the charge gradient created by the active transport of Na+ions.
 Water leaves the filtrate through osmosis following a gradient, but instead of a
charge gradient, it follows a solute concentration gradient created by the transport
of solutes out of the filtrate into the intercellular fluid and then the surrounding
capillaries.
 About 80% of the salt ions and water in the filtrate are reabsorbed as the filtrate
passes through the proximal convoluted tubule.
 100% of the glucose lost during ultrafiltration is reabsorbed by active transport.
 The wall of the proximal convoluted tubule is only one cell thick allowing for
efficient movement of molecules across a short distance.
 The wall also contains microvilli (similar to the small intestine) that increase the
surface area for reabsorption of important molecules.

 The role of the loop of Henle is to create a solute concentration gradient in the
medulla of the kidney.
 The descending loop of Henle is permeable to water but impermeable to salt ions.
 The ascending loop of Henle is permeable to salt ions but impermeable water.
 As the filtrate flows up the ascending loop Na+ ions are pumped out of the
filtrate into the interstitial fluid of the medulla thus increasing the solute
concentration in the medulla.
  As the filtrate flows down the descending loop (before the ascending loop) water
flows out of the filtrate into the interstitial fluid of the medulla by osmosis
following the concentration gradient created by pumping Na+ ions out of the
ascending loop.
 Therefore the medulla has a very high concentration of Na+ ions
 This system is countercurrent because the flow of the filtrate in the descending and
ascending loop is in opposite directions. This allows for a greater concentration
gradient to be created in the medulla.
 The filtrate now leaves the loop of Henle and enters the collecting duct where
the water level is fine-tuned.

 If the solute concentration in the blood is too high, osmoreceptors in the

hypothalamus sense this and signal the pituitary gland to produce a hormone
called ADH (anti-diuretic hormone).
 ADH causes special pores called aquaporins in the collecting duct to open,
allowing water to be reabsorbed back into the blood, thus making the blood more
dilute.
 If the solute concentration in the blood is too low, osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus sense this and signal the pituitary gland to reduce its production of
ADH.
 This causes the aquaporins in the collecting duct to close, keeping the excess water
in the filtrate, which excreted as dilute urine.
 This is called osmoregulation.

11.4 Sexual Reproduction

 Spermatogenesis is basically the production of sperm through meiosis.

 Spermatogenesis starts when 2n cells in the germinal epithelium called

spermatogonia divide by mitosis to form more 2n cells that begin to move towards
the middle of the seminiferous tubules.

 These cells grow and replicate their DNA to prepare for meiosis. These are now
called primary spermatocytes.
 These primary spermatocytes undergo their first meiotic division resulting in two
haploid (n) cells called secondary spermatocytes.

 Cells in between the developing spermatocytes called interstitial cells produce

testosterone in the presence of LH to aid in the development of the sperm

 Secondary spermatocytes undergo a second meiotic division resulting in four

spermatids (n).

 Sertoli cells nourish the spermatids as they mature and differentiate into
spermatozoa.

 Sertoli cells are activated by FSH

 Spermatozoa are released into the lumen of the seminiferous tubules where they
are transported to the epididymis. The sperm attain full motility in the epididymis.

 Oogenesis is basically the production of female eggs (female gametes) through

meiosis.

 Germ cells (2n) in the fetal ovary divide by mitosis to produce many 2n germ
cells called oogonia.

 Oogonia will grow in the cortex until they are large enough and ready to go through
meiosis; they are called primary oocytes.

 The primary oocytes begin to go through the first division of meiosis,which is

stopped in prophase I when follicle cells surround the dividing oocyte.

 This is called the primary follicle

 These follicles remain in the first stage of meiosis until the girl reaches puberty and
begins her menstrual cycle.

 Every month a primary follicle finishes meiosis I to form two haploid (n) cells (one
haploid cell is much larger than the other cell). This development is stimulated by
FSH.

 The large cell is a secondary oocyte and the small cell is called the polar body.

 The secondary oocyte develops inside what is known as the mature follicle
 As the large secondary oocyte begins to go through the second meiotic division, it
is released from the ovary. It will not complete the second meiotic division unless
the oocyte is fertilized.

 When meiosis II is complete you have an ovum and another polar body.

 Fertilization is the combining of the male and female gametes to produce a zygote.

 Sperm are ejaculated into the vagina of a female and are stimulated to swim by
calcium ions in the vaginal fluids.
 The sperm follows chemical signals produced by the egg until they reach the
fallopian tubes, which is where the majority of fertilization takes place.

 When the sperm reaches the egg, a reaction called the acrosome reaction takes
place that allows the sperm to break through the layer of glycoproteins.

 The acrosome in the head of the sperm releases hydrolytic enzymes onto
the glycoprotein layer surrounding the egg called the zona pellucida.

 This digests the layer allowing the sperm to force their way through the zona
pellucida through vigorous tail beating.

 The first sperm that makes it through comes into contact and fuses with the egg’s
membrane (The membrane at the tip of the sperm has special proteins that can bind
to the now exposed membrane of the egg), releasing the sperm’s nucleus into the
egg cell.

 When the membranes fuse together, cortical granules near the surface of the egg
membrane are released by exocytosis.

 The chemicals in the granules combine with the glycoproteins in the zona pellucida.
This causes the glycoproteins in the zona pellucida to cross-link with each
other, creating a hard layer impermeable to the other sperm.

 This prevents fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm.

 When a human embryo is implanted into the endometrium or the uterine lining, it
starts to produce the hormone, human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG).

 HCG promotes the maintenance of the corpus luteum and prevents its
disintegration.

 This allows for the continued production of progesterone which is critical for
pregnancy.
 Progesterone enriches the uterus with a thick lining of blood vessels and
capillaries so that it can sustain the growing fetus.

 HCG might repel the immune cells of the mother thus protecting the fetus during
early development.