5.

1 Evidence for evolution

Evolution is the cumulative change in the heritable characteristics of a population

A fossil is the preserved remains or traces of any organism from the remote past
The fossil record shows the gradual change of species over time.
The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, is referred to as the fossil record
The fossil record shows that over time changes have occurred in the features of living
organisms (evolution)
The sequence of fossils matches the expected sequence of evolution with bacteria and
algae being the oldest.
The law of fossil succession suggests that we find different species in rocks of certain ages in
a consistent order.

Selective breeding is a form of artificial selection thus, man breed animals and plants for
particular traits.
By breeding members of a species with a desired trait, the trait will become more frequent
in successive generations
For example, horses have been selectively bred for racing thus are chosen to be
faster, leaner, lighter and taller.

Comparative anatomy may show structural features that are similar, implying common
ancestry.
Homologous structures are anatomical features, similar in basic structure but used in
different ways.
The more similar the homologous structures between two species the more related they
are.
Homologous structures show adaptive radiation since the basic structure is adapted to
different niches.
The basic example is the pentadactyl limb:
Mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles have a five-digit limb however they are
dissimilar in locomotion.
Humans use it for tool manipulation, birds for flying, horses for galloping and wales for swim
Within a population there is genetic variation. If two populations of the same species
become separated geographically, thus can’t reproduce or interbreed, then natural
selection will act differently in those two populations and will start adapting to different
environmental conditions. Over time, these populations change so that they are different
and this is called speciation, The degree of divergence depends on the extent of
geographical separation, populations in close proximity will show less variation. So,
speciation is the process by which two related population diverge into separate species.

5.2 Natural selection

Natural selection can only occur if there is variation between species.
Natural selection suggests that the species that is considered to be the “fittest” in terms of
adaptation is chosen to pass on their genes and is more likely to survive and reproduce.
If there was no variation, no individual would be favored and natural selection wouldn’t
take place.

Genetic variation can be promoted via:

› Mutations
o Mutation is a change in the nucleotide sequence thus new alleles are
formed
› Meiosis
o Crossing over
 It occurs in prophase one and the two non-sister chromatids
exchange genetic material at points called chiasmata. Recombinants
are formed
o Independent assortment
 It occurs in metaphase I. When the homologous chromosomes line
up at the equator level, they arrange themselves independently,
randomly and there are 2n possible combinations, where n is the
number of haploid chromosomes.
› Sexual reproduction
 o Random fertilization is the fusion of maternal and paternal DNA that are
varied. Different combinations of phenotypes arises each time.
The Malthusian dilemma states that populations multiply geometrically thus, species can
produce more offspring than the environment can support.
This, causes competition for survival.
The more offspring, the less resources are available for other members of the
population.
This will lead to struggle for survival and an increase in mortality rate.
The better adapted individuals will survive and produce more offspring. For example,
giraffes have long necks so as to be able to eat leaves from the trees.
The variation within a population is heritable and determined by the presence of alleles:
Beneficial alleles will promote survival and reproduction
Detrimental alleles will decrease survival prospects
Neutral alleles will not affect survival prospects

5.3 Classification of biodiversity

The Binomial system of nomenclature has three main objectives:
Provide each organism with a unique name
Name can be universally understood
Stability exists
In the binomial nomenclature the genus is first written and capitalized and then the species
All organisms are classified into three domains:
› Eukarya: eukaryotic organisms (e.g., fungi)
› Archaea: procaryotic cells (e.g., extremophiles)
› Eubacteria: bacteria (e.g., staphylococcus aureus)

Taxa:
Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
(Katy Perry Comes Over For Grape Soda)