AER200: Advanced

Aeronautics
Lecture 3: Atmospheric Pressure & Meteorological Aspects of Altimetry
Reference: RCAFWM Chapters 5 & 13
Agenda

1. Measuring Pressure
2. Pressure Definitions
3. Pressure Systems
4. Pressure Gradient Force
5. Coriolis Force
6. Geostrophic Wind
7. Wind Effects
8. E6B Practice
1. Measuring Pressure

Why is pressure important?

 1. Measuring Pressure

• Pressure has a large impact on winds, clouds, and precipitation

• Is a useful means for determining altitude
• Lateral but subtle distribution determines winds
• Pressure is defined as force per unit area
• The unit of pressure in North America for aviation is inches of mercury (‘’hg)
• Used for all altimeter settings and performance charts
• Hectopascals (hPa) is another unit used
• Primarily on weather map charts
1. Measuring Pressure
1. Measuring Pressure

Two ways of measuring pressure:

• Mercury barometer
• Glass tube over an open dish of mercury
• Changes in atmospheric pressure causes mercury to rise or lower
in the tube
• Aneroid barometer
• Flexible metal cell that contracts and expands with changes in
pressure
1. Measuring Pressure
1. Measuring Pressure

of A1ir5
Mountain .00 “
Hg Standard atmosphere

ure of 3 0 .50 “Hg

Press
2. Pressure Definitions

Station pressure: weight of air above an airport

• Higher elevation airports will have lower pressure
• Lower elevation airports will have higher pressure
2. Pressure Definitions

Mean Sea Level (MSL) Pressure: Station pressure adjusted to a

common level
• Allows pressure at different airports to be compared, without the
effects of elevation
• Station pressure plus the weight of a fictitious column of air
between the station and mean sea level
• Weight of column depends on temperature, previous 12 hour
average used
2. Pressure Definitions
2. Pressure Definitions

• Isobars: areas of equal pressure

• Specifically, areas of the same MSL pressure
• Mainly used for weather maps, drawn at 4 hectopascals (hPa) intervals
starting at 1000
• Can be used to visualize pressure systems, allowing for weather to be forecast
• Isobars will never cross
• Pressure tendency: The rate of rise or fall of pressure at a particular
location
• Pressure is always changing
3. Pressure Systems
• A Low or Cyclone is rising air
• Bad weather, poor visibility
•
•
Stratus clouds, light winds
Movement:
L
• Summer: 500 miles / day
• Winter: 700 miles / day
• Winds:
• Above 3000’ agl: parallel to isobars
• Below 3000’ agl: INTO the low slightly
• Tends toward consistent day and night temperatures
• Low pressure is simply by comparison to surrounding areas
• Counterclockwise rotation in Northern hemisphere
3. Pressure Systems
• Anti-cyclone is subsiding air, compression occurs
• Clockwise circulation in the Northern hemisphere
• Highs fill in Lows in a circuitous path
• Surface winds blow slightly outwards in a slow spiral
• Clear skies predominate
• Higher day temperatures, lower night temperatures
• Good visibility
• Cumulus type clouds if any
• Breezy H
3. Pressure Systems

Trough:
• Elongated areas of low pressure
Ridge:
• Elongated areas of high pressure
Cols:
• Areas of neutral pressure between two highs and two lows
3. Pressure Systems
3. Pressure Systems
Note: All pressure systems are relative to surrounding pressure
 4. Pressure Gradient Force

• Pressure systems are always moving

• The air around pressure systems also moves in a predictable pattern
• Pressure will always move from high to low
• Pressure Gradient Force (PGF): the force that moves air from high to low
• Strength depends on pressure differential
• Closer isobars have a steep pressure gradient
• Distant isobars have a weak pressure gradient
4. Pressure Gradient Force
 5. Coriolis Force

Coriolis Force (CF): force as a result of the earth’s

rotation
• Prevents air from moving directly from high to low
• Causes air to be deflected right in Northern hemisphere
• Causes air to be deflected left in Southern Hemisphere
• Greater with increased air speed
• Zero at the equator
• Maximum at the poles
5. Coriolis Force
5. Coriolis Force

• As an air parcel moves it is deflected right

• The speed of the air parcel increases as it begins to
move
• Coriolis force increases as the speed increases
• Coriolis force will increase to perfectly balance PGF
• Air motion will be parallel to isobars
5. Coriolis Force
6. Geostrophic Wind

• The vector of wind under influence from Coriolis force and pressure
gradient force
• Both forces balance out and the result is wind parallel to isobars
• Stronger pressure gradient force will result in stronger winds
• Results in stronger Coriolis force
• Changing pressure can cause wind to no longer be geostrophic
• Air will spiral inwards and upward in low pressure areas
• Air will flow outwards and down in a high pressure areas
6. Geostrophic Wind
6. Geostrophic Wind
Buys Ballot Law
•Stand with the wind at your back
• Stick out your left arm
• Your fingers will point to the center of the low-pressure area
6. Wind Effects
Curvature Effect:
• Centrifuge force is added when isobars are curved
• Acts in the same direction as PGF around a high, resulting in higher wind
speeds than around a low for the same pressure gradient
• Stronger winds normally occur around low pressure areas
 6. Wind Effects

Veering and Backing

• When the wind direction changes clockwise, we say it is veering
• When the wind direction changes counter-clockwise we say it is backing
6. Wind Effects

Flow due to Surface Friction

• Surface friction at low altitudes
tends to diminish Coriolis effect
and cause the winds to flow
slightly inwards towards Lows and
outwards from Highs
• Friction also slows the wind flow
• Less Coriolis force at slower speed
• PGF is constant
6. Wind Effects
 6. Wind Effects
• Winds back in direction and slow in speed close to the surface
• Winds veer in direction and increase in speed as altitude increases

Aloft (>3000 feet)

Surface
6. Wind Effects
•The wind speed and direction change depends on the
friction coefficient of the surface
• Winds may only back by 10 degrees over water and
as much as 40 degrees over rough terrain
Winds 270 at 50 knots
> 2000 feet AGL

Winds 260 at 40 knots Winds 245 at 30 knots Winds 230 at 25 knots

Water Flat land Rugged terrain

6. Wind Effects
7. Altimeter Errors
Altimeters are designed to read correctly during ISA conditions:
• Surface temperature 15°C;
• Surface pressure 29.92" of mercury (1013.2 ha);
• Lapse rate within the troposphere approximately 2°C/ 1000 feet;
Tropopause at approximately 36,000 feet;
• Temperature at the tropopause -56.5°C;
• Assumed perfectly dry;
• Decrease of 1’’ per 1000 feet (in lower atmosphere)
7. Altimeter Errors
• In any conditions other than those listed, there will be errors
• Errors are not critical for aircraft separation because all aircraft will
have the same error
• Error can be significant for obstacle clearance
• Surface pressure error:
• Altimeter will over read in lower pressure
• Altimeter will under read during higher pressure

• ”From high to low look out below”

7. Altimeter Errors
7. Altimeter Errors
7. Altimeter Errors

• Temperature error:
• Very similar to pressure errors
• Lower temperatures the altimeter will over read
• High temperatures the altimeter will under read
• Combination of both temperature and pressure errors can cause
significant deviations
7. Altimeter Errors
7. Altimetry Definitions

Pressure Altitude: the reading of the altimeter when 29.92" is set on it.
It is the altitude designated for each pressure in the International
Standard Atmosphere (ISA).

Density Altitude: altitude in the ISA corresponding to the prevailing air

pressure and ambient temperature. It is the pressure altitude
corrected for temperature.
7. Altimetry Definitions

Indicated Altitude: is the reading of the altimeter when the local

altimeter setting is placed on the subscale.

True Altitude: is the indicated altitude corrected for flight level

temperature. It is correct only if the lapse rate is 2C/1000 feet.

Airspeed corrections: Indicated à Calibrated à Equivalent à True

7. Altimeter Errors
Questions?