Intermolecular

Forces, Liquids and

Solids
Chapter 1

General Chemistry 2
Prepared by: Missy Grace Melinas
Learning Objectives
At the end of the chapter, the learners are able to:
1. Illustrate the kinetic molecular model of liquids and solids.
2. Differentiate the following intermolecular forces of
attraction (IMFA)
3. Differentiate solids from liquids through their properties and
the IMFA that holds the atoms/molecules together
4. Illustrate the structure of water and how it contributes to its
properties.
5. Identify the types and properties of solids
6. Explain the phase diagram of water and carbon dioxide.
Arrangement of Particles

Solid Liquid Gas

 The
Kinetic-Molecular
Model of Liquids
and Solids
water vapor liquid water ice
 Same chemical properties,
different physical properties

water vapor liquid water ice

How can we determine
the physical and
chemical properties of
solids and liquids?
Covalent bonds Intermolecular forces
determine: (non-covalent bonds)
influences:
a. molecular shape
b. bond energies a. physical properties
c. chemical properties of liquids and solids
Liquids
1. The intermolecular attractive forces are strong enough
to hold particles together, but not strong enough,
allowing the molecules to freely move or slide over
one another
2. It has the capacity to flow.
3. It can be poured and assume the shape of their
containers.
4. It is more dense and less compressible than gases.
5. It has definite volume, independent of size and shape
of their container.
Solids
1. The IMF between neighboring particles are
strong enough to keep them locked in position.
2. Not very compressible like liquids due to lack of
space between particles.
3. If the particles are in highly ordered packing
arrangement, the structures are said to be
crystalline.
Kinetic
Energy
Kinetic energy keeps the molecules apart
and move around.

It is a fuction of the temperature of the

substance
Intermolecular
Forces
Intermolecular forces try to
draw the particles together.
Intermolecular
Forces
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Factors Affecting the State of a
Substance:
1. Temperature - heating and cooling changes
the kinetic energy of the particles, thus, its
physical state.
2. Pressure - increasing the pressure of the
substance increases the strength of IMF
 Effect of Pressure and
Temperature on Particles
Kinetic Molecular Theory

If I added a few drops of

food coloring into a glass of
water, what will happen?
Kinetic Molecular Theory

Why does this happen?

Kinetic Molecular Theory

Why does this happen?

It happens because both

substances are made of molecules
that are constantly moving.
Kinetic Molecular Theory
It explains the behavior of matter.
5 Postulates of KMT:
1. Matter is made of particles that are constantly in
motion (kinetic energy).
2. The amount of KE in a substance is directly
proportional to its temperature.
3. The amount of space in between particles are related
to the substance’s state of matter.
Kinetic Molecular Theory
It explains the behavior of matter.
5 Postulates of KMT:
4. Phase changes happen when the temperature of the
substance changes sufficiently.
5. As the strength of the intermolecular forces increases,
the particles gets closer together.
KMT and Properties of Liquid
The strength of the IMF is affected by the
amount of KE in the substance.

KE IMF
 KMT and Solids
Solid particles has little KE and vibrate in place.
Because of this, they cannot flow like liquids.

Crystalline structure - orderly repeating

arrangement of particles called crystal lattice
Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids

Has orderly internal Has NO orderly

structures internal structures
Amorphous Solids

Has NO orderly
internal structures

It can be molded into any shape and

remolded anytime it is heated a bit.

Examples: rubber, plastic, glass, and wax

Intermolecular
Forces
Intermolecular Forces
are the attractive forces between particles
The strength of the IMF causes the formation of
the different physical states.
1. Polar Covalent Forces
Hydrogen bonds
Dipole-dipole forces
Ion-dipole forces
2. Nonpolar Covalent Forces
Dispersion Forces
Van der Waals Force
Polar Covalent Forces
a. Hydrogen Bonds
occur between polar molecules
that contain highly
electronegative atoms such as
F,O, and N.
It has relatively strong
intermolecular forces
Polar Covalent Forces
b. Dipole-dipole Forces
occur between oppositely
charged poles of polar molecules
Polar Covalent Forces
c. Ion-dipole forces
occur between an ion and a polar
molecule
Nonpolar Covalent Forces
a. Dispersion Forces
Proposed by Fritz London
A weak IMF that arise
from interactive forces
between
instantaneous/induced
dipoles called London
dispersion forces
Nonpolar Covalent Forces
b. Van der Waals Force
Named after Johannes
Diderik van der Waals
Molecules can attract
each other at moderate
distances and repel at
close range.
Properties of
Liquids
Properties of
Liquids
1. Surface Tension
2. Viscosity
3. Capillarity
4. Vapor pressure and boiling point
5. Molar Heat of Vaporization
Surface Tension
It is the cohesive forces between
liquid molecules
The stronger the cohesion
between the water molecules
than its attraction to the air will
make it more difficult to move an
object through the surface
Surface Tension
Due to surface tension,
small objects will “float”
on the surface of the fluid,
behaving like an elastic
membrane.
Net inward force = more
cohesion of water
molecules
Surface Tension
Unit of measurement:
dynes/cm

Examples of Surface Tension:

1. Walking on water Water striders
2. Floating needle
3. Clinical test for jaundice
4. Surface tension disinfectants
5. Soaps and detergents
6. Washing with cold water
7. Why bubbles are round
8. Surface tension and droplets of water
Hay test
Surface Tension
Unit of measurement:
dynes/cm

Examples of Surface Tension:

1. Walking on water
2. Floating needle
3. Clinical test for jaundice
4. Surface tension disinfectants
5. Soaps and detergents
6. Washing with cold water
7. Why bubbles are round
8. Surface tension and droplets of water
Viscosity
The fluid’s resistance to flow
Dynamic/absolute/simple viscosity
the resistance to movement of
one layer of fluid to another
Kinematic viscosity
it is a measure of the resistive
flow of a fluid under the influence
of gravity (cm^2/s or Stokes, St)
Viscosity
The fluid’s resistance to flow
Dynamic/absolute/simple viscosity
the resistance to movement of
one layer of fluid to another
Kinematic viscosity
it is a measure of the resistive
flow of a fluid under the influence
of gravity (cm^2/s or Stokes, St)

Capillary viscometer
Capillarity
It is the rise or depression of a liquid in a small passage such as tube.
Result of a surface/interfacial forces
Capillary Rise = lesser cohesion than adhesion
Capillary Fall = more cohesion than adhesion
Capillarity
Capillarity
Vapor pressure and Boiling Point
Vapor pressure - the tendency of particles to escape from the liquid at
a given temperature
Volatile - substance with high vapor pressure at normal temperature
^ temp of liquid = ^ KE of molecules = ^ no. of molecules
transformed into vapor = ^ vapor pressure
Therefore,

temp vapor pressure

Vapor pressure and Boiling Point
Normal Boiling point
the atmospheric pressure boiling point of a liquid
the temperature at which the vapor pressure = atmospheric
pressure
1 atm (760 mmHg)
Bumping - the phenomenon where bubble
expands fast, causing hot liquid to splatter
Molar Heat of Vaporization
Heat of vaporization - the energy required to transform a
given quantity (kg, lb, etc.) of a substance from liquid to gas
at a given pressure.
Structure and
Properties of
Water
Molecules of
Water
Covalently bonded
Tetrahedral geometry
104.5 degrees bond angle
No net electric charge
Has polarity
Properties of
Solids
Electrical Conductivity
Electricity - the flow of electrons
from one place to another
Electrical Conductivity
Electrical insulators - materials
that do not conduct electricity
Electrical Conductivity
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal Conductivity
Heat insulators - solids that have
low heat conductivity
Malleability
Malleability - ability to hammer a solid into
a sheet without breaking it
Ductility
Ductility - ability to stretch a solid to form
a wire
Do metals have
malleability and
ductility?
 Do metals have
malleability and
ductility?

YES
Metallic malleability and ductility are crucial
reason that metals are so useful
Melting Point
The melting point of a solid depends on the
strength of the IMF

Mercury Tungsten
Tridymite Graphite
MP: -38°C MP: 3,422°C
MP: 1,670°C MP: 4,489°C
liquid at room temp
Melting Point
Ionic bonds have weaker IMF than covalent
and metallic bonds

Sodium chloride Lithium bromide

MP: 801°C MP: 552°C
Melting Point
Solubility
The extent to which a solid dissolves in a
particular solvent
Metal can be dissolved by breaking the metallic bonds
Network solid can be dissolved by breaking covalent bonds
Ionic solid can be dissolved by breaking the ionic bonds

Dissolving a molecular solid requires breaking only WEAK IMF

Solubility
The extent to which a solid dissolves in a
particular solvent

Water molecules dissolving ionic solids

Solubility
Density
The amounth of mass per unit volume
Some Essential Properties of Solid
1.A solid has a definite volume and shape
It has strong IMF and orderly arranged molecules
2. A solid is rigid and cannot be compressed easily
Molecules are closely packed
3. A solid does not diffuse into another solid easily
4. A solid does not flow and can be stored in a container
Molecules cannot flow and leave the surface of the solid
5. A solid on heating usually changes into its liquid state
Heat provides energy to overcome the IMF
Crystalline and
Amorphous
Solids
Crystalline Solids
Unit cell - smallest repeating structure of a solid
Crystal lattice - a network of combined unit cells

There are 14 types

of lattices, called
Bravais lattices
(named after
Auguste Bravais)
Crystalline Solids
Crystalline Solids
All crystals have anisotropy
certain chemical or physical
properties are different for
different directions
Types of Crystalline Solids
Amorphous Solids
“solids without form” or pseudo solids
It melts gradually because bonds do not
break all at once (malleable state)
Unsymmetrical - they do not have regular
planes of cleavage when cut and edges can
be curved
Isotropic - its properties are equal
regardless of the direction in which force is
applied
Phase Change
It is a distinctive form of a
substance that can change
among matter
Phase Diagram
It summarizes the effect of
pressure and temperature on
a substance in a closed
container
Phase
Diagram of
Water
Phase
Diagram of
Water

Le Chatelier's
Principle
If a dynamic equilibrium is
disturbed by changing the
conditions, the position of
equilibrium shifts to
counteract the change to
reestablish an equilibrium.
Phase Diagram of Water
Phase
Diagram of
Carbon
Dioxide
Quiz na!
CHAPTER 2

PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF
SOLUTIONS
PREPARED BY: MISSY GRACE MELINAS
“KHEMEIA”
art of changing inexpensive metals into expensive ones
started in 1773
Alchemy originated from the Greek word khemeia

“KĒME”
Chemistry came from the Egyptian word kēme, meaning, “earth”
Concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter,
and its changes during chemical reactions
1
TYPES OF
SOLUTIONS
SOLUTION
homogenous mixture of two or more
substances that are uniformly distributed

SOLUTE
the dissolved substance

SOLVENT
dissolving medium
A. AMOUNT OF SOLUTE DISSOLVED IN A SOLVENT
DILUTE SOLUTION
low concentration of solute in a given amount of solvent

SATURATED SOLUTION
maximum amount of solute is dissolved in a given amount of solvent

SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION
more than the maximum amount of solute is dissolved in a given
amount of solvent
A. AMOUNT OF SOLUTE DISSOLVED IN A SOLVENT
B. PRESENCE OF SOLUTE IN AND OUT OF A CELL
MEMBRANE
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
higher concentration of solution inside the cell than the outside
causes the cell to burst

ISOTONIC SOLUTION
equal concentration outside and inside the cell
movement of water in and out of the cell is balanced
B. PRESENCE OF SOLUTE IN AND OUT OF A CELL
MEMBRANE
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
higher concentration on the outside of the cell than the inside
causes the cell to shrink

TONICITY
The concentration in and out of the cell membrane must be at
equilibrium to ensure the normal functioning of the cells
The physical state of the solvent determines
the state of the solution.
2
FACTORS AFFECTING
THE RATE OF
DISSOLVING
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF DISSOLVING
A. STIRRING/AGITATION
stirring moves the solving particles faster, causing the process of
dissolution faster

B. HEATING
gives the solvent particles more kinetic energy.
greater collision of solvent to solute particles increases the rate of
dissolution
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF DISSOLVING
C. POWDERING
the smaller the size of the solute particles, the greater the surface
area in contact with the solvent
3
SOLUBILITY AND THE
FACTORS
AFFECTING IT
SOLUBILITY AND THE FACTORS AFFECTING IT
SOLUBILITY
the amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of solvent

A. NATURE OF SOLUTE
“likes dissolve likes”
ex. ionic and polar solutes dissolve in polar solvent
SOLUBILITY AND THE FACTORS AFFECTING IT
B. TEMPERATURE
solubility is directly proportional to its temperature in solid and liquid
solubility is indirectly proportional to its temperature in gas
SOLUBILITY AND THE FACTORS AFFECTING IT
C. PRESSURE
has minimal effect on the solubility of solid and liquid
has vast effect on the solubility of gases
SOLUBILITY AND THE FACTORS AFFECTING IT
C. PRESSURE
Why are carbonated softdrinks properly
capped?

To maintain the pressure exerted by CO2 on

the surface of the liquid. The solubility of CO2
decreases as the pressure is released
SOLUBILITY AND THE FACTORS AFFECTING IT
C. PRESSURE
Why are carbonated softdrinks properly
capped?
Henry’s Law
To maintain the pressure exerted by CO2 on
the surface of the liquid. The solubility of CO2
decreases as the pressure is released
SOLUBILITY AND THE FACTORS AFFECTING IT
C. PRESSURE
William Henry proved on Henry’s Law
that “the solubility of a gas in a liquid
is directly proportional to the pressure
exerted by the gas on the surface of
the liquid”
SOLUBILITY AND THE FACTORS AFFECTING IT
C. PRESSURE
Hyperbaric - high atmospheric
pressure treatment
As the pressure increases, the amount
of oxygen dissolved and transported
into the tissues by the blood also
increases
4
CONCENTRATION
UNITS AND ITS
COMPARISON
CONCENTRATION UNITS AND ITS COMPARISON
CONCENTRATION
The amount of substance divided by the
total volume of a mixture