Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 52 (2022) 416–427

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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhtm

A new dimension in the value of corporate social responsibility:

Demotivating undesirable job habits during crisis
Cindia Ching Chi Lam a, Erdan Ma b, *, Ut Lon (Billy) Im a, Wilson Cheong Hin Hong a, Leyi Zhao a
a
School of Tourism Management and School of Hospitality Management, Macao Institute for Tourism Studies, Macao, SAR, China
b
School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Yunnan University of Finance and Economics, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Recent studies on the pandemic have focused on the DOs and DON’Ts of recovery remedies, but few have
Crisis investigated the pandemic-spawned fundamental internal problems of the enterprises in order to diminish the
Corporate social responsibility impacts of the mega-crisis and relieve the need for recovery efforts. It is incontestable that employees are one of
Habit change
the major victims of the pandemic crisis; their negative emotions caused by the increasing career and financial
Escape habit
Pandemic
instability have heightened the challenges of their enterprises that are striking for survival. This research has
identified a breakthrough that extends the effect of CSR efforts from the traditional societal focus to internal
employees, to whom CSR is found to mediate the undesirable escape habits and anti-crisis behaviours resulted
from crises. This strengthens the understanding and value of CSR, while presents management with a novel
mixed strategy to stabilize employee emotions and assemble their competence to get through a crisis.

1. Introduction
A crisis is a situation where individuals face serious threats (Roberto,
Goodall, & Witte, 2020; Yin & Jing, 2014) that may result in both
cognitive and behavioural changes. Based on the crisis theory, crisis
events that are too strong for people to maintain inner balance with the
environment would instigate psychological stress and disorder, resulting
in anxiety, depression, fear and other negative emotions (Kumar,
Tankha, Seth, & Timple, 2020; Samman, 2015). From self-defence
psychology, such stress aroused by external stimuli can lead to
abnormal and substitute actions (Cao, Siu, & Shum, 2021; Goodwin
et al., 2021). Therefore, facing an excessively stressful event, like the
pandemic crisis, employees may mobilize all their resources to cope with
the stress and to achieve rebalance (Watts, 2015) by altering their job
habits (Mojoyinola, 2008), resulting in undesirable work behaviours
(Harmsen, Helms-Lorenz, Maulana, & van Veen, 2018).
During the pandemic, many job routines have changed dramatically,
accompanied by pay adjustments or redundancy; these have caused
worries among employees (Choudhari, 2020). Frone (2018) found that
recessions increase employees’ insecurity, affect their affection for the
organization and lower their job satisfaction (Yeves, Bargsted, Cortes,
Merino, & Cavada, 2019), which caused negative work behaviours
(Czarnota-Bojarska, 2015). Under such circumstances, the employees
were however found to become more conscious towards the extent of
social responsibilities exercised by the employers (García-Sánchez &
García-Sánchez, 2020). According to Chun and Lenssen (2009) and
Wasike (2012), corporates’ responsible image helps boost employees’
morale in uncertain and crisis situations, and may induce positive
behaviours.
There is a paucity of investigations on the effect of stress and the
mechanism of stress-coping behaviours resulting from a severe event in
the workplace. The methods to reduce negative emotions and promote
active response during a crisis are also rarely examined. This study,
therefore, seeks to explore the three major areas on how job habits and
satisfaction are affected by stress under crisis, whether job satisfaction
can alleviate undesirable work behaviours and whether CSR will influ­
ence employees’ coping job habits during the period. The findings will
deepen our understanding of the extent and severity of the effect of
crises on employee job habits and job satisfaction. It will then be feasible
to identify appropriate actions for the industry to alleviate the negative
influences of crises on the internal aspect of enterprise employees and
allow the management to better respond to external market turmoil.
2. Literature review
According to the theory of crisis management, when an external

* Corresponding author. 237 Longquan Road, Kunming, Yunnan, 650221, China.

E-mail address: ZZ2236@ynufe.edu.cn (E. Ma).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2022.07.006
Received 26 November 2021; Received in revised form 7 July 2022; Accepted 9 July 2022
Available online 19 August 2022
1447-6770/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of CAUTHE - COUNCIL FOR AUSTRALASIAN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY EDUCATION. All
rights reserved.
C.C.C. Lam et al.
crisis erupts, individuals who suffer are threatened to get into a psy­
chological state of emergency. They have at least three perceptions:
occurrence of a critical event, negative emotions resulting from the
event, and realizing habitual behaviours ineffective in coping with the
situation (Kanel, 2014). If they suffer repeated and prolonged stress,
they feel stressed out (Bowen, Edwards, Lingard, & Cattell, 2014). They
would then exercise coping behaviours, and struggle to deal with the
stress (Zheng, Luo, & Ritchie, 2021).
2.1. Stress
Stress is a reaction to a situation that one perceives as threatening
and has no appropriate coping response (Cohen & Wills, 1985). It is a
tense experience caused by the evaluation of external threats and their
effects on him/her. Intense stress can change an individual’s stereotype
and curing behaviours (Park, Edmondson, Fenster, & Blank, 2008),
particularly in the service industry, where face-to-face interaction is
always necessary even during the pandemic. However, people display a
remarkable ability and a complex process to recover from stress
(Bonanno et al., 2008; Orchiston, Prayag, & Brown, 2016). When people
realize what has happened (i.e., the stressor), they will produce stress,
re-evaluate their behaviours, and then form coping strategies, imple­
ment coping behaviours, attempt to achieve adaptation and finally
change their behaviours (Rabenu & Yaniv, 2017). This is supported by
the findings of Park, Finkelstein-Fox et al. (2021), who stated that
people have a strong resilience response after their initial feeling of
shock and fear from the pandemic, while their level of distress dimin­
ished and well-being increased over time. However, studies on how
people recover from the negative shock of crises remain scant.
According to evolutionary psychology (Hussain, 2021), the reaction
to stress is encoded in our genes, which are inherited from our ancestors’
unremitting strive for survival and reproduction. Inheritance aside,
coping strategies are also attributed to complex internal and external
factors such as age, family status (Can & Avcin, 2021), personality traits,
resilience (Osimo, Aiello, Gentili, Ionta, & Cecchetto, 2021), social
support level from workforce (Can & Avcin, 2021; Holton et al., 2020),
neighbourhood (Chen et al., 2020), family and friends (Whitehead &
Torossian, 2021). During the pandemic, how to respond to stress also
depends on an individual’s adversity, including perceived stress, social
isolation, financial strain and insecurity, occupational difficulty and
resource scarcity (Zheng, Luo, & Ritchie, 2021). Wong, Kim, Kim, and
Han (2021) identified three main sources of stressors among tourism and
hospitality employees: traditional work stressors, unstable and more
demanding work-environment stressors, and unethical
labour-practices-borne stressors. From perceiving stressors to making
coping responses, individuals need to make multiple cognitive assess­
ments of not just the pandemic stress but also their job and the situation
(Engelbrecht, 2020).
Awareness and understanding of stress are different among em­
ployees (Aldwin, 2007). Meanwhile, coping levels and strategies are
complex and changeable (Park, Finkelstein-Fox et al., 2021). Scholars
have found various strategies of how people cope with pandemic stress
(Table 1). Some employees tend to passively escape from ordeals and
discomforts from the pandemic by avoidance thinking and engaging,
and even throwing into addicted activities; while others actively cope
with troubles by solving problems and seeking supports.
2.2. Job habit
Habits are persistent behaviours formed by repeating practices over
time (Verplanken & Melkevik, 2008). Job habits are generally devel­
oped from the beginning of one’s career life or evolved from daily lives
(Duhigg, 2012). People are more willing to follow their habits than to
change them, because changing requires extra effort to break the orig­
inal pay-return cycle. However, when an event, such as war, famine or
earthquake occurs, the living order is subverted (Van Aelst et al., 2021),
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 52 (2022) 416–427
Table 1
Coping Strategy of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Coping Strategy Positive/ Source
Negative
Self-blame for men Negative Makarowski et al. (2020)
Behavioural disengagement for Negative
women
Emotion-focused coping strategies Positive Sharma et al. (2020)
Problem-focused coping strategies Positive
Involvement in entertainment (e.g. Negative Boursier et al. (2021)
watching TV)
Consumption of alcohol and Negative Martínez-Cao et al. (2021)
tobacco
Avoided thinking about the Negative Kar, Kar, and Kar (2021)
pandemic
Unsure of coping strategies Negative
Struggling to cope Positive
Approach-oriented coping Positive Park, Finkelstein-Fox, et al.
Avoidance coping Negative (2021)
people are proactive in initiating defence mechanisms and stress re­
actions to cope with the situation. Changes usually result when people
no longer find maintaining a habit worthwhile (Saxena & Limbad,
2021).
According to the theory of reactance, the greater the significance of
danger, the stronger the reactance (Miron & Brehm, 2006). Under the
pandemic, employees in the tourism and hospitality industries are
required to follow new work requirements and operation processes due
to stringent hygiene reconnaissance and novel social distancing norms
(Kapoor, 2021; Sadhale, 2021). The crisis causes a deep fear and has
become a catalyst to reflect and disintegrate the old behavioural pat­
terns in their subconscious mind (León-Zarceño, Moreno-Tenas, Boix
Vilella, García-Naveira, & Serrano-Rosa, 2021). Such major incidents
that happen abruptly may inevitably force people to break their routine
and take new actions to avoid damage (Shilling, 2008).
Existing literature has indicated two behavioural conflicts faced by
people during the pandemic, namely, maximizing their well-being
versus stopping virus spreading (Arnot et al., 2020) and self-protecting
versus providing services (Møller, 2021). However, theories of habit
change in the pandemic are still patchy (Weston, Ip, & Amlot, 2020),
particularly for employees in the workplace. In the context of work­
places, the psychology of self-protection and avoiding damage can tap
into a series of psychologically and physically withdrawal and escape
tactics, consisting of staying unnoticed, loafing, taking long breaks,
being late for work, leaving early, finding excuses to get out of work, and
even absenteeism without valid reasons (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner,
2000). Employees exhibit changes in job habits to avoid work re­
sponsibility and reduce work involvement (Hanisch & Hulin, 1990).
Consequently, their job performance is affected (Lehman & Simpson,
1992).
In contrast, some studies found employees maintain positive working
attitudes towards crises (Charney, Rebmann, & Flood, 2015; Drabek,
2000). The same positive attitudes are observed during the current
pandemic. Employees consciously follow preventive instructions and
perform responsibly to provide safe surroundings and respond to tour­
ists’ frequent inquiries. They exercise self-discipline under the pressure
of their livelihood and social constraints (e.g. sensitivity to shaming,
Cato et al., 2020; job insecurity and economic instability, Lin, Shao, Li,
Guo, & Zhan, 2021). They also keep good self-protection habits such as
washing hands, wearing masks, social distancing (Lim et al., 2021;
Mieth, Mayer, Hoffmann, Buchner, & Bell, 2021; Møller, 2021; Weston
et al., 2020). In addition, organizational citizenship and altruistic be­
haviours are found to be responses to the pandemic (Park, Hight, Buf­
quin, Meira, & Back, 2021; Walker, 2021), like exercising extra efforts
on virus prevention and providing added assistance to colleagues and
customers (Chiang & Hsieh, 2012). The pandemic can affect altruistic
behaviours positively and negatively, depending on the mediating
C.C.C. Lam et al. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 52 (2022) 416–427

effects of variables like an individual’s perception of emergency and the 2.4. The role of corporate social responsibility
organization’s leadership (e.g. Hu, He, & Zhou, 2020). Employees may
fall into an impasse to exercise withdrawal and self-protection job habits Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is “the continuing commitment
due to risk-averse instinct or being devoted to work due to altruism. In by business to behave ethically” (Holme & Watts, 2000, p. 9) and
view of the naturally negative influence of stress on psychology and “contribution to sustainable development” (Organisation for Economic
behaviour, the following hypothesis was developed: Co-operation and Development, 2001, p.13). It is the exercising of
economic, social, environmental, legal and ethical responsibilities by
H1. Stress is positively correlated with undesirable job habits
business organizations (Carroll, 2016), generally used as a strategic
practice of corporate governance by satisfying major stakeholders,
2.3. The role of job satisfaction
including consumers, employees, shareholders, government and society
(Souto, 2009). A reputable corporate can enhance employee attachment
Job satisfaction is a crucial goal of human-oriented management,
and performance (Lee, Park, & Lee, 2013), which in turn benefits the
particularly for a responsible organization. Satisfied employees are also
corporate. Carmeli, Gilat, and Waldman (2007) stated that organiza­
viewed as a precious asset in crisis situations. They are helpful in coping
tional favourable status in employees’ minds has a substantial effect on
with difficulties in their organization. Job satisfaction has been defined
their attitude and actions, particularly in commitment, cooperation and
as an emotional reaction (e.g. Locke, 1969) but also viewed as an atti­
citizenship behaviours. CSR reflects the core value of a corporation,
tudinal assessment of a job (Ilies & Judge, 2004). Different from tasks
rather than “an episodic endeavor” (Katamba, Zipfel, Haag, &
that are mainly confined to reactions to the present situation, the eval­
Tushabomwe-Kazooba, 2012, p. 3). The value of CSR multiplies over
uation of a job is complex as it relates to considerations of the past, the
years in the employees’ minds and shapes their habits day to day.
present and even the future. Job satisfaction hinges on past experiences
Therefore, it is hypothesized that.
(Cho, Lee, Kim, & Kim, 2011; Ma, Samuels, & Alexander, 2003), while
positive future job expectations and beliefs can help employees get H5. The perceived value of CSR is positively correlated with desirable
through present sufferings (Ilies & Judge, 2004; Kong, Wang, & Fu, job habits
2015). The pandemic crisis has made employees reevaluate their job
CSR can be a bond between the corporate and employees. Companies
affection for the status quo.
that exercise CSR will take actions to support employees’ response,
The stress suffered by employees has been analyzed to result from
including improving work environment, ensuring job safety and secu­
mortality fear, changes in work arrangement and the worsening of
rity, and supporting welfare (Barakat, Isabella, Boaventura, & Mazzon,
economic situations (e.g. Lin et al., 2021; Singh, Bhatia, & Nigam, 2021;
2016). Their goals should be mainly to increase employees’ job satis­
Wu, Wu, & Tian, 2022). Under stressful situations, employees may feel
faction and their performance by arousing employees’ ethical sense and
exhausted and experience occupational burnout (Nevanperä et al.,
belief in devotion at work (Shin, Hur, & Kang, 2016). Du, Bhattacharya,
2012), which will lower their job satisfaction (Harzer & Ruch, 2015),
and Sen (2015) found that CSR programs generate related affable out­
leading to negative emotions and attitudes towards their jobs (Wu et al.,
comes, including job satisfaction and turnover reduction. Kim, Milli­
2022). Hence, it is hypothesized that.
man, and Lucas (2021) believed companies adopting CSR raise
H2. Stress is negatively correlated with job satisfaction employees’ commitment, which establishes a sense of justice and
self-esteem in the workplace. Hence, it is hypothesized that.
Job satisfaction is found to impact job habits. Satisfied workers tend
to hold positive attitudes towards their job and customers, and make H6. The perceived value of CSR is positively correlated with job
personal efforts for the sake of the organization (Judge, Weiss, satisfaction
Kammeyer-Mueller, & Hulin, 2017). Dissatisfied workers are more likely
During a crisis, employees facing huge stress from work would
to become indifferent to their work and intend to leave the workplace
experience burnout, depression, employee turnover and even health
(Bowling, Khazon, Meyer, & Burrus, 2015). Facing the same stress, with
impairment (Schneiderman, Ironson, & Siegel, 2005). In certain types of
different job attitudes, employees will choose different coping behav­
crises, CSR in the form of providing timely support and help was found
iours (Bregar, Skela-Savic, & Plesnicar, 2018). Job satisfaction is effec­
to have a remedial effect in boosting the morale of employees (Mao, He,
tive at relieving pandemic-triggered negative emotions and lowering
Morrison, & Andres Coca-Stefaniak, 2021). However, research also
employees’ counterproductive work behaviours (Ng, Hsu, Yim, Zou, &
indicated that pre-crisis efforts in CSR would determine the efficacy of
Chen, 2021; Trougakos, Chawla, & McCarthy, 2020). Based on the
such positive influence (Bögel, 2019; Ginder & Byun, 2022). Employees
aforementioned, it is hypothesized that.
are sensitive to the company’s responsible actions (Barakat et al., 2016)
H3. Job Satisfaction is negatively correlated with undesirable job when it improves work engagement (Duarte, Gomes, & das Neves,
habits 2014), job satisfaction, organization commitment (Mueller, Hattrup,
Spiess, & Lin-Hi, 2012) and in-role performance (Duarte et al., 2014).
Nevertheless, the buffering effect of job satisfaction on the rela­
Their perception of the company could be the result of prior-held beliefs
tionship between stress and negative job habits is still not clear. Chung,
and trust in the company’s CSR activities (Elving, 2013). Under the
Jung, and Sohn (2017) identified job satisfaction as a significant medi­
stress of the health crisis and job insecurity, employees expect more
ator between job stress and turnover, but Saragih, Prasetio, and Lutur­
support to cope with the crisis (Kim, Woo, Uysal, & Kwon, 2018). CSR,
lean (2020) failed to identify such an effect. Yet scholars recommended
therefore, may be used as a tool to calm the negative effects of job stress.
promoting employee satisfaction to decrease the pandemic’s negative
Therefore, it is hypothesized that.
influence (Chen et al., 2020; Wong et al., 2021). It is thus valuable to
examine this relationship based on the rationale that job satisfaction as a H7. Stress is negatively correlated with the perceived value of CSR
positive attitude can help individuals to actively deal with negative
H8. CSR mediates the effect of stress on undesirable job habits
external stimuli and exhibit positive behaviours; the following hypoth­
esis is proposed: Based on the aforementioned hypotheses, the conceptual model was
established as presented in Fig. 1.
H4. Job satisfaction mediates the correlation of stress and undesirable
job habits
3. Materials and methods

This research applied the quantitative survey method, using

418
C.C.C. Lam et al.
Fig. 1. Conceptual model on the mediating effect of job satisfaction and CSR on stress with job habits.
purposive sampling. A large sample can improve the reliability and
generalizability of the result (May & Williams, 1998), while purposive
sampling is a non-random technique that ensured the key segments
under study were sampled (Campbell et al., 2020).
3.1. Materials
A questionnaire was designed based on the research objectives and
practical considerations. It included nine major sections with 93 ques­
tions, from validated scales derived from past literature and local con­
siderations. The nine sections and the applied scales were namely CSR
(Wan & Chan, 2013), stress from DASS-21 Scale (Lovibond & Lovibond,
1995), effects of the pandemic, habit change (Cao et al., 2021; Gupta &
Jenkins, 1983; Lau et al., 2004; Lehman & Simpson, 1992; Smith, 2006),
job satisfaction (Price & Mueller, 1981), occupational future time
perspective (OFTP, Zacher & Frese, 2009), and organizational support
and demographics. The DASS-21 used a 4-point Likert scale from not
applicable (1) to most applicable (4), the effects of pandemic on job used
a 5-point Likert scale from no influence (1) to very serious influence (5)
and dichotomous scale to examine various aspects of change, while the
other sections used a 7-point Likert scale from strongly disagree (1) to
strongly agree (7). The scales were translated from English to Chinese
through a back-and-forth process by experienced translators. The
translation during each stage of the process was reviewed by three ex­
perts in the field. The current research applied four variables, namely
CSR, stress, habit change and job satisfaction.
3.2. Data collection and analysis
The data were collected face-to-face at 12 designated locations of
Macao by trained surveyors and online from December 2020 to January
2021. The collection period was around one year from the outbreak of
the pandemic and the majority of enterprises and their employees have
already had year-long suffering. Subsidies and government support had
mostly ended within six months after the pandemic, while most places in
the world were still exercising stringent entry and travelling measures.
Most of the positive expectations that the pandemic will only be short-
term should have been eroded away. Therefore, data collected during
the period should well reflect the real situation and perception of the
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 52 (2022) 416–427
employees. Spot check was carried out for the face-to-face survey to
ensure the professionalism of the surveyors. The online approach was
adopted due to safety measures of the pandemic but stringent measures
were implemented to ensure its reliability and validity. Three screening
questions were included to ensure the collected samples were 18 years
old or above and have been working in the tourism industries before the
pandemic, during its occurrence, and by the time when the research was
carried out. These were set with the objectives of ethical considerations
that the samples could provide informed consent, and they were
employed in the target industry of this research before and during the
pandemic to warrant they were able to provide their perception of the
CSR activities and job-related measures of their employers. In addition,
data from respondents who spent less than 120 s to fill out the survey or
having equal or more than 5% of missing information were excluded
from the analysis. Macao is the fastest-growing economy in the world
with the highest GPA per capita (International Monetary Fund, 2021). It
also has the highest density of service businesses that covered both
traditional service industries like hotels and restaurants, as well as niche
service industries like gaming and casinos.
To ensure the representativeness and comprehensiveness of the
samples, purposive sampling was applied to target employees working
in the tourism and hospitality industries, specifically in the segments of
tourism service, hotel, casino, food and beverage, retail, and other self-
identified tourism-related segments, as these industries are gravely
affected by the pandemic (Macao Government Tourism Office, 2021).
The employees of these industries suffered from no-pay leave, rear­
rangement of their scope of work and termination for some (Alves, Lok,
Luo, & Hao, 2020; Im, Lam, & Ma, 2021). A pilot study was carried out
and the questionnaire was then slightly revised to improve the clarity of
the wording. The survey was then carried out for one month, covering
both weekdays and weekends, with a response rate of 26.7%. The
response rate was relatively low likely due to the high instability in the
service sector during the pandemic.
The collected data underwent three rounds of data cleaning to
identify problematic samples and data input errors. Responses with
equal or more than 5% of missing information were excluded from the
final analysis. As determined by G*Power, the required minimum sam­
ple size is 146, based on squared multiple correlations of 0.5, effect size
0.15 and Power 0.95 and critical F of 2.16. A total of 895 questionnaires
C.C.C. Lam et al.
were collected, 23 of which were removed, leaving 872 samples in the
final analysis. The analyses were done by SPSS Version 24 and AMOS
24.0.0. The reliability and normality of the data were first checked.
Multicollinearity was then investigated utilizing variance inflation fac­
tor (VIF; Miles, 2005). The items that measured the factors were
examined by factor analysis to investigate the unidimensionality and the
factor structure, factors with low factor loadings were excluded (Kim &
Muller, 1978). The means, standard deviations and correlations of fac­
tors included in the final analyses were then determined and the hy­
potheses were tested.
The measurement model (see. Fig. 2) was then tested by structural
equation modelling (SEM) using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to
investigate the hypothesized correlations between the latent and
observed variables (Hoyle, 1995). Composite reliability was then
investigated (Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991) while construct validity was
identified by average variance extracted (AVE), convergent validity by
squared multiple correlation (SMC) and the discriminant validity was
determined by comparing the squared correlation of the latent variables
and the AVE of the respective variables (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson,
2010). Bootstraps of 5000 were applied where applicable. The final
model with the best fit was found and applied. The direct and indirect
effects of the variables were then deliberated.
4. Results
4.1. Participants
A total of 872 samples were included in the final analyses, with
61.5% of females and 38.5% of males. The majority are amongst the
25–34 age group (40.1%), followed by 35–44 (25.2%), 45–54 (17.7%),
16–24 (12.3%) and 55 or above (4.7%). Most of the samples have
completed undergraduate studies (38.7%) and secondary school
(36.1%), the remaining have completed college (19.5%), primary school
or below (3.9%) and master’s degree or above (1.8%). There is an almost
even spread between singles (43.1%) and married (53.4%), the rest are
divorced/widows (3.6%). The majority are locals (66.4%), while the rest
are from Mainland China (28.6%) and other regions (5.0%).
Fig. 2. Measurement model.
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 52 (2022) 416–427
For occupation, all the samples worked in the tourism and hospitality
industries, with the majority related to the gaming sector (73.4%). This
proportion is normal, as Macao tops other cities in the world in gaming
revenue (Statista, 2021). Most of the samples worked in frontend posi­
tions (75.1%), while management (43.2%) and non-management posi­
tions are similar in distribution (56.8%). More than 94% of the samples
indicated that they were affected at work by the pandemic and 37.5%
denoted they were seriously influenced. Amongst the seven most
commonly identified work-related effects, 69.6% of samples reported
being influenced by one to three items. The seven work-related effects
included salary, fringe benefits, unpaid leave, leave without pay, addi­
tional work scope, transfer of department and worsening of co-worker
relationship.
4.2. Reliability and multicollinearity
The reliability of the data was checked by Cronbach’s alpha (Cron­
bach, 1951) and all the variables reached the threshold of 0.7 (Table 2).
The multicollinearity of the two dependent variables—job satisfaction
and habit change—against the respective independent variables was
examined by VIF and tolerance. Both statistics were well within the
threshold, VIF below 5 (Menard, 2001) and tolerance more than 0.1
(Miles, 2005), illustrating that collinearity is not a concern (Table 3).
4.3. Factor analysis
The variable items were factor analyzed and extracted by the prin­
cipal components methods with eigenvalues greater than one and using
Table 2
Reliability of the variables CSR, DASS-21, habit change and job satisfaction.
Variables Cronbach Alpha Items
Job Satisfaction .930 4
CSR .887 5
Stress .865 7
Habit Change .740 18
C.C.C. Lam et al. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 52 (2022) 416–427

Table 3 both found to be negatively correlated with the escape habits at r =

Multicollinearity between the dependent (DV) and independent variables (IV).
Job Satisfaction Habit Change
Stress 2.506 1.049
CSR 1.005 1.106
Job Satisfaction 1.049
varimax rotation with Kaiser normalization; small values were sup­
pressed. Items with factor loadings of lower than 0.4 or with less than
three items were excluded (Kim & Muller, 1978). All the factors reached
a KMO of 0.8 or higher, all significant at p < .01 (Table 4), which
indicated an adequate sampling and the data is normally distributed
(Cerny & Kaiser, 1977). The sum of the partial correlations when
compared to that of correlations was insignificant. Thus, reliable and
distinct factors were identified (Kaiser, 1974).
From the 41 items that measured the five variables, one item was
excluded from the anxiety factor and two from the habit change-social
distancing factor, leaving 38 items in the final analyses. Habit change
was further categorized into two categories covering four factors. They
are (a) self-related habits that included self-discipline and escape habits,
and (b) peripheral habits that included anti-crisis and social distancing
habits.
4.4. Confirmatory factor analysis
Goodness-of-fit. The results of the final structural equation model
with the best fit were shown in Fig. 3 with CMIN at 3.713 (p = .156) and
goodness-of-fit of RMSEA at 0.031, NFI at 0.991, IFI at 0.996 and CFI at
0.995, all of which surpassed the required thresholds. The final model
included six latent variables and 25 observed variables.
Reliability and Validity. The reliability, composite reliability,
discriminant validity and construct validity all met the required
threshold (Table 5). The shared variances between the constructs,
calculated by square correlation, were smaller than the AVE, denoting
discriminant validity (Table 6). The only exception was between anxiety
and stress, which yielded a difference of 0.025.
Hypotheses Testing. The mean, standard deviation and correlation
are illustrated in Table 7. The Pearson correlations are all significant and
supported the majority of the hypotheses. The three factors covered
under the construct of habit change are self-discipline, escape and anti-
crisis habits. Stress was shown to positively correlate with escape habits
(r = +0.151, p < .01), while it also positively correlated with anti-crisis
habits (r = +0.081, p < .01); these supported H1. Stress was also found
to be negatively correlated with job satisfaction (r = − 0.215, p < .01)
and CSR (r = − 0.670, p < .05); these supported H2 and H7. The
perceived value of CSR is shown to be positively correlated with job
satisfaction (r = +0.325, p < .01) and this supported H6. Job satisfaction
was found to positively correlate with self-discipline (r = +0.172, p <
.01) and anti-crisis habits (r = +0.174, p < .01); while perceived value of
CSR also positively correlated with self-discipline (r = +0.180, p < .01)
and anti-crisis habits (r = +0.124, p < .01). On the contrary, they were
Table 4
Factor analysis and the number of items included in the model.
KMO Hypothesized Measurement
Items Items
− 0.183 (p < .01) and r = − 0.146 (p < .01) respectively. These sup­
ported H3 and H5. The results of the hypotheses testing were summa­
rized in Table 8.
Direct, Indirect, Total and Mediating Effects. The significant
direct and indirect effects were shown in Table 9. Stress was found to
have direct negative effects on both job satisfaction (β = − 0.195, p <
.05) and CSR (β = − 0.067, p < .05). It also imposed positive effects on
the intention to have stronger anti-crisis habits (β = +0.091, p < .01)
and escape habits (β = +0.117, p < .01). Job satisfaction has positive
effects on the self-discipline habits (β = +0.094, p < .05), and negative
effects on the escape habits (β = − 0.127, p < .01). Similarly, CSR also
has positive effects on the self-discipline habits (β = +0.118, p < .01),
and negative effects on the escape habits (β = − 0.098, p < .05).
Comparatively, CSR has a stronger positive effect on self-discipline
habits than job satisfaction, while imposing weaker negative effects on
escape habits than job satisfaction. Nonetheless, CSR has a strong pos­
itive direct effect on job satisfaction (β = +0.312, p < .01).
Job satisfaction is found to significantly mediate the effect of stress
on anti-crisis and escape behaviour. The effect of stress on anti-crisis is
significantly reduced from β = +0.091 to β = − 0.092 while the effect on
escape behaviour is reduced from β = +0.117 to β = +0.055 after
mediation of job satisfaction. These supported H4. Meanwhile. CSR has
significant mediating effects between stress and job satisfaction, and
between stress and habit change intentions. Being the mediator, CSR has
significantly reduced the effect of stress on job satisfaction from β =
− 0.195 to β = − 0.043. CSR also mediates the effect of stress on anti-
crisis habits from β = +0.091 to β = − 0.015; it also mediates the ef­
fect of stress on escape habits from β = +0.117 to β = +0.015. These
supported H5 and H8.
5. Discussion
5.1. Variables in the final model
The measurement model comprised seven latent and 32 observed
variables. All the latent variables met the acceptable reliability level
based on Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability. One observed
variable for anti-crisis habits did not meet the required factor loading of
0.5, while another observed variable for anti-crisis habits and one for
CSR did not meet the SMC of 0.5. All of these were excluded from the
final model. In addition, stress, job satisfaction and CSR did not have
significant effects on the latent variable social distancing habits; this was
thus removed from the final analysis.
The current research applied 24 working habits of employees in the
conceptual model. The working habits in the final analyses were cate­
gorized into the three factors of self-discipline, escape and anti-crisis; the
first two were self-related habits, while the third one was a peripheral
habit. The anti-crisis job habit consisted of behaviours related to effec­
tive preventive measures, for instance, keeping social distance and
personal health management (World Health Organization, 2021).
However, when employees did not only exercise these preventive
measures but also always paid high attention to whether other col­
leagues and customers did the same, they would be distracted from
performing their own duties, which might eventually lead to poor per­
formances and make customers uncomfortable.

Stress .905 7 7 5.2. The formation of stress

Job Satisfaction .845 4 4
Corporate Social .802 5 5 A crisis is an event or radical change that will impose significant
Responsibility
emotional influences on an individual, who may feel anxious, afraid,
Habit Change .801 18 16
Self- Self-discipline angry, confused, stressed, incompetent to even hopeless. These
related: Escape confusing states will affect the ordinary successful coping mechanisms of
Peripheral: Anti-crisis an individual and result in ineffective decisions or the adoption of
Social negative behaviours to counter the anxiety and pain. The changed be­
distancing
haviours can give rise to both short-term and long-term effects. If the

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Fig. 3. Standardized direct effects of the final structural equation model.

Table 5
Composite reliability and convergent validity of the measurement model.
Factor Cronbach Composite Average variance Squared multiple
loadings alpha reliability extracted correlation

Stress .865 .897 .557

S1 I found it hard to wind down .700 .601
S6 I tended to over-react to situations .770 .510
S8 I felt that I was using a lot of nervous energy .758 .614
S11 I found myself getting agitated .828 .663
S12 I found it difficult to relax .799 .561
S14 I was intolerant of anything that kept me from getting on with .684 .532
what I was doing
S18 I felt that I was rather touchy .669 .506

Job Satisfaction .930 .951 .829

JS1 I found real enjoyment in my job .908 .770
JS2 I am comparatively satisfied with my job .922 .810
JS3 I am fairly well satisfied with my job .882 .690
JS4 Overall, I am satisfied with my job .929 .824

CSR Corporate Social Responsibility .880 .909 .714

CSR information is valuable for:

CSR1 Improving company reputation .833 .504
CSR2 Increase employee loyalty .863 .849
CSR3 Improve employee ethics .844 .800
CSR4 Help with the company’s sustainable development .840 .512

Self-discipline (Habit change) .881 .912 .722

SD1 Never thought of absence at the peak of the pandemic .847 .683
SD2 Never thought of leaving the job at the peak of the pandemic .879 .768
SD3 Never asked others to cover for me .873 .665
SD4 Never made excuse to shirk work .798 .501

Escape (Habit change) .815 .792 .563

E7 Being late more frequency than before .798 .761
E8 Being absent more frequency than before .818 .707
E10 Made excuses to leave my work .619 .505

Anti-crisis (Habit change) .748 .791 .560

AC20 Prohibit gathering of customers more .763 .589
AC21 Prohibit behaviours against preventive measures more .806 .867
AC22 Concern the health of my colleagues more .669 .513

crisis can act as a positive catalyst, the experiences encountered may irreversible personal transformation in behaviours and attitudes. The
allow the individual to become more competent and autonomous; in impact on work behaviours happened mostly in the short run as a direct
contrast, it may alter their creeds and beliefs, which can result in response of the employees under stress. Such impact, if persist, may

422
C.C.C. Lam et al. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 52 (2022) 416–427

Table 6 from work. By being more disciplined, employees expressed they “never
Discriminant validity on squared correlation and AVE. thought of absence at the peak of the pandemic”, “never thought of
Stress JobSat CSR HC-SD HC-E HC-AC leaving the job at the peak of the pandemic”, “never asked others to
cover for me” and “never made excuses to shirk work”. These can reflect
Stress 1.000
JobSat .046 1.000 the enthusiasm of the employees at their work and their standard of
CSR .004 .106 1.000 responsibility, which is crucial for a company. Together with their lower
HC-SD .010 .030 .032 1.000 intention to escape from work, the productivity of the employees can be
HC-E .023 .033 .021 .061 1.000 expected to, at least, maintain even during a crisis. This can be inter­
HC-AC .007 .030 .015 .005 .060 1.000
AVE .557 .829 .714 .722 .560 .563
preted as a good adversity quotient (AQ), which is an important char­
acteristic to counteract adverse and unexpected situations.
N = 872; JobSat = Job satisfaction; HC-SD=Habit Change (Self-Discipline); HC- Job satisfaction was also found to mediate the effect of stress and
E=Habit Change (Escape); HC-AC=Habit Change (Anti-Crisis); AVE = Average
lower the anti-crisis behaviour and escape behaviour. Job satisfaction
Variance Extracted.
helps keep employees on track under stress, so they will focus on the
work but not consider escaping from work nor over-exhibiting anti-crisis
affect the well-being of the employees in the long run. The well-being of behaviours.
employees results from a portfolio of factors, where job stress is one of
them.
Unlike the kind of stress before the pandemic, which was mainly 5.5. The mediating effect of CSR
from routine work and customer demands (Wong et al., 2021), the stress
during the pandemic mostly resulted from adapting to the drastic From the aforementioned, it can be seen that job satisfaction is
change. Almost all the participants (>90%) in the research study (em­ important to frame the positive working habits of employees and lower
ployees) were found to be influenced at work by the pandemic, with their intention to escape from work. Therefore, it is vital to manage the
37.5% indicating serious impacts, particularly in income. This increased effect of stress in order to maintain the level of job satisfaction. The
monetary pressure would affect the living standard of the employees, current study verifies that CSR can significantly mediate the effect of
while diminished job security and eroded career progression expecta­ stress on job satisfaction, from β = − .195 to only β = − 0.043. CSR can
tions would trigger considerable stress on the employees. also significantly mediate the effect of stress on escape habits, from β =
+0.117 to β = +0.015. Note that escape habits were found to negatively
affect self-discipline and positively affect anti-crisis habits. Therefore, it
5.3. Effect of stress on job satisfaction and habit changes
is important to manage this habit. If not, employees may have higher
intentions to take interference in colleagues’ and customers’ behaviours
Results indicated that the increase in job stress lowered employee job
as anti-crisis actions, while decreasing the extent of self-disciplines.
satisfaction and reinforced their escape habits. Employees under stress
According to the results, CSR also significantly mediated the effect of
were found to have higher rates of lateness, increased absences and
more excuses to escape from work. Moreover, they exercised more anti-
crisis behaviours in the way of interaction with their customers, Table 8
enquiring about the health status of their colleagues and the type of Result summary of hypotheses testing.
safety precautions exercised. They also reduced the level of direct con­ Hypotheses Findings Statistics
tact with both customers and colleagues. Their suffering in job stress H1 Stress is positively correlated with undesirable job Supported 1
affected their emotional stability, which in turn lowered their enthu­ habits
siasm at work, so they might want to escape through different means. H2 Stress is negatively correlated with job satisfaction Supported 1
H3 Job Satisfaction is negatively correlated with Supported 1
Following the decrease in satisfaction, the employees might become
undesirable job habits
more sensitive or “demanding”, and these may be expressed through H4 Job satisfaction mediates the correlation of stress Supported 2
their intervention on the behaviours of others, such as restricting the and undesirable job habits
way of communication, being inquisitive about the health situation of H5 The perceived value of CSR is positively correlated Supported 1, 2
colleagues, and expressing more concern over rules and regulations with desirable job habits
H6 The perceived value of CSR is positively correlated Supported 1
practised. Such changes in habits may distract the focus of the em­ with job satisfaction
ployees from work and obliterate the harmonious working atmosphere H7 Stress is negatively correlated with the perceived Supported 1
or even weaken the customer relations. value of CSR
H8 CSR mediates the effect of stress on undesirable job Supported 2
habits
5.4. Effect of job satisfaction on habit changes
Statistics - respective statistics in the manuscript.
Job satisfaction, as an independent factor, was found to have positive 1. In Results section, under Confirmatory Factor Analysis, Hypotheses Testing,
paragraph one.
direct effects on self-discipline and anti-crisis habits, but negative direct
2. In Results section, under Confirmatory Factor Analysis, Direct, Indirect, Total
effects on escape habits. At higher levels of job satisfaction, employees
and Mediating Effects, paragraph two.
were found to be more self-disciplined and had lower intention to escape

Table 7
Mean, standard deviations, correlations of the variables.
Mean SD N Stress JobSat CSR HC-SD HC-E HC-AC

Stress 1.49 0.575 872 1

JobSat 5.32 1.169 872 − .215** 1
CSR 5.96 0.950 872 − .067* .325** 1
HC-SD 5.42 1.495 872 − .098** .172** .180** 1
HC-E 2.10 1.279 872 .151** − .183** − .146** − .247** 1
HC-AC 4.74 1.285 872 .081* .174** .124** − .070* .245** 1

N = 872; JobSat = Job satisfaction; HC-SD=Habit Change (Self-Discipline); HC-E=Habit Change (Escape); HC-AC=Habit Change (Anti-Crisis). **Correlation is sig­
nificant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

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Table 9
Significant standardized direct and indirect effects.
Estimates p Estimates p

Direct effects
Stress– > JobSat − .195 .000 CSR– > JobSat +.312 .000
Stress– > CSR − .067 .041 JobSat– > HC-SD +.094 .028
Stress– > HC-AC +.091 .007 JobSat– > HC-AC +.212 .001
Stress– > HC-E +.117 .005 JobSat– > HC-E − .127 .002
CSR– > HC-SD +.118 .003 HC-E− > HC-SD − .213 .000
CSR– > HC-AC +.103 .004 HC-E− > HC-AC +.285 .000
CSR– > HC-E − .098 .012
Indirect effects
Stress*CSR*JobSat − .043 .035
Stress*CSR*HC-AC − .015 .022 Stress*JobSat*HC-AC − .092 .000
Stress*CSR*HC-E +.015 .031 Stress*JobSat*HC-E +.055 .001
Stress*CSR*JobSat*HC-AC − .010 .028
Stress*CSR*JobSat*HC-E +.006 .019

N = 872; JobSat = Job Satisfaction; HC-SD=Habit Change (Self-Discipline); HC-AC=Habit Change (Anti-Crisis); HC-E=Habit Change (Escape); p = significant level.
Bootstrap = 5000.

stress on anti-crisis habits, from β = +0.091 to β = − 0.015. When both
CSR and job satisfaction mediated the effect of stress on escape behav­
iour simultaneously, the effect was further reduced from β = +0.046 to
β = +0.006, which was also more effective than the mediation of job
satisfaction alone (β = +0.055). These suggest the effectiveness of CSR
and its importance.
The correlations among the different habit changes and job satis­
faction and perceived value of CSR are actually in resonance and the
strength of the correlations is akin. The more satisfied the employees are
and the higher the perceived value of CSR that employees have, the
stronger the intention for them to be more self-disciplined. Simulta­
neously, job satisfaction and perceived value of CSR can weaken the
escape habits of being late, absence and evasion from work. Hence,
improving the job satisfaction and perceived value of CSR can exert
prominent effects on the habits of the employees.
6. Contributions
6.1. Theoretical contributions
This study offered three main contributions from the theoretical
perspective. The first contribution is an exploration of behavioural
change at work during the pandemic. Employees probably encountered
a behavioural conflict as constructed by Arnot et al. (2020) and Møller
(2021). They are identified to take three main types of work habit
change, namely, self-discipline, escape and anti-crisis behaviours. These
three modes reveal the complexity of employees in coping with
mega-crises, and indicate that people under stress may exercise multiple
behaviours, including both positive and negative responses. Literature
on coping behaviours mostly focuses on withdrawal and protective be­
haviours, while few studies analyze the proactive side such as volun­
teering and altruistic behaviours (Derecskei & Nagy, 2020).
The second contribution is the recognition of organization-related
elements that can help to relieve stress and promote positive changes.
Previous studies examined the factors which stimulated positive be­
haviours at the individual psychological level in the pandemic, such as
the psychological impact suffered (Romero-Rivas
Rodriguez-Cuadrado, 2021) and a lower sense of control (Goodwin
et al., 2021). The current study sketched and confirmed the mechanism
of stress adaptation after a crisis. The adaptation happens not only at the
individual level but integrated organizational elements, from reaction to
the stressor, and then re-evaluation of their job and employer, to taking
new behavioural modes.
The third contribution is the enrichment of understanding regarding
the benefits of CSR and job satisfaction. They display different influences
on the three behavioural choices: a positive influence on self-discipline,
but negative influence on escape. Furthermore, CSR has a stronger
positive effect on self-discipline than job satisfaction, but weaker
negative effect on escape than job satisfaction. That means CSR is a
better propellent for employees’ self-discipline change, while job satis­
faction is a better inhibitor for employees’ escape habit. The mediation
of CSR also decreases the negative effect of stress with job satisfaction,
and further decreases anti-crisis and escape behaviours. It reveals CSR’s
significant advantage in maintaining order in a crisis; employees tend to
reduce anti-crisis and escape behaviours. In other words, findings sup­
port that continuous dedication in CSR can have preventive and pro­
tective effects against negative impacts. Specifically, relentless CSR
efforts can maintain employees’ calmness and potentially benefit em­
ployees in settling down to their work and returning to normal in an
unforeseen crisis.
6.2. Managerial implications
Job satisfaction is subjective and is determined by a portfolio of
factors that include salary, fringe benefits and career progression. These
factors at the individual level can be gravely affected by the pessimistic
business environment during crises or bad times. CSR, comparatively,
results from the long-term efforts and contributions of the company. It is
likely to be embedded in the underlying beliefs of employees and will
not be easily compromised by abrupt fluctuations of the economy or
distinct incidents, like a crisis. Based on the findings, CSR can effectively
mediate the positive effect of stress on undesirable job habits. According
to the Taguchi philosophy, efforts invested before the problems rather
than after the problems can always yield more effective outcomes and at
lower costs (Kackar, 1989). Therefore, if the practice of CSR is
embedded as part of the long-term company strategy, it can act as an
anti-shock element during crises to counterpoise the volatile nature of
job satisfaction, to stabilize the emotions and confidence of the em­
ployees, to maintain their self-discipline, prevent over-intervention in
the behaviour of colleagues and the weakening of communications with
customers while avoiding their escape behaviours. The qualitative value
of CSR is therefore not limited to improving the image and reputation of
the company from customers’ perspectives, but also maintaining em­
&
ployees’ confidence and job satisfaction while strengthening their pos­
itive working habits. CSR is a continuous effort. When corporations
embarked on the implementation of CSR, they might not have antici­
pation that CSR could act as a “shock absorbent” in unforeseen crises.
The current study has provided evidence that CSR has the potential to
exert preventive and ongoing effects on intensified negative emotions
and behaviours of employees when a corporation receives an impact
from a crisis. These are crucial at times of adversity.
When an organization exercises CSR, it may strengthen employee
loyalty and their ethical standards, which are perceived as criteria for
sustainable development. Crises are almost always unexpected; the

424
C.C.C. Lam et al.
practice of CSR by an organization can be used as a safety net that sta­
bilizes the mindset and emotions of employees. This will allow time and
opportunity for an organization to confront the crisis and do so in
greater unison.
7. Limitations and future research
A strength of this research is that instead of identifying contingency
potentials to be applied only during the post-crisis stage, it focuses on
precaution opportunities that can be exercised at the pre-crisis stage.
This will allow the management more time and better allocation of re­
sources to plan ahead and get well-prepared to counteract the sudden
threats. Nonetheless, we do acknowledge that the pandemic, being a
mega-crisis, has affected all segments of society to varying degrees. The
situation differs from business, financial or even natural crises when the
effect is restricted to certain segments and employees always have the
potential to shift to or rely on other segments to escape from the after­
math of the crisis. The pandemic, however, has shaped an environment
where there are limited alternatives for employees to escape from the
ghastly situation. Employees may thus be forced to accept organiza­
tional changes, and this may lead to more job stress in the psychological
aspect than during other crises. Thus, future research can examine the
extent of the mediating effect of job satisfaction and CSR on stress
considering the length and capacity of crises. There are some other
variables which may also influence habit change under stress and
deserve future investigations. For example, in the study of Filimonau,
Derqui, and Matute (2020), CSR attributes were found to correlate with
perceived job security. The respondents of this study also reported their
income was affected by the pandemic and this may affect their perceived
job security, leading to higher stress. Future research should consider
further investigating the relationship between income and job security
during a crisis, and examine how CSR can cushion the impact.
The data of the current research was collected around one year after
the first sign of the pandemic was confirmed due to the stringent health
and safety measures, and it is found that job satisfaction and CSR are
effective mediators of stress on undesirable job habits. Nonetheless, the
time that CSR is being established in the organization may affect the size
and strength of its preventive and remedial impacts. Similarly, the
length of the crisis and the gravity of the aftermath may be influential
variables, and both short-term and long-term features may be affected.
Future research designs should consider framing such research as a
longitudinal study, to examine if the length of CSR establishment will
affect the strength and form of its effectiveness during different stages of
the crisis, as well as to identify the diversity of its mediating effect,
including the long-term effect on employee well-being. Moreover, a
minor finding of the current research illustrated that employee-
perceived CSR can improve their loyalty and the sustainable develop­
ment of the company. These two areas are valuable aspects that should
be further examined in future studies.
The current research focuses on the hard-hit tourism industry during
the pandemic, though the influence of this crisis has expanded to all
segments of the society to dissimilar extents. Future research should
examine the mediating effect of job satisfaction and CSR in other in­
dustries, especially the non-service industries and non-profit
organizations.
8. Conclusions
During a crisis, dealing with employees’ stress is central to an or­
ganization’s survival and sustainability in the workplace. Although
numerous studies displaying that stress resulting from the crisis was
proved to bring a significant impact on the employees’ behaviour, how
employees respond to stress and what factors influence the coping
behaviour are still in paucity. This study explored and examined three
typical behavioural changes which employees tend to exhibit when
responding to the stress under the pandemic, namely escape, self-
425
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 52 (2022) 416–427
discipline and anti-crisis. The findings have extended the applications
of the coping theory to the behavioural level. Job satisfaction and
perceived values of CSR can effectively alleviate the impact of stress
regarding undesirable changes in work habits. The results revealed the
value of CSR in dealing with crises, both before they happen, as part of
the contingency and remedial plan and also during the turmoil to sta­
bilize the insecurity of the employees.
Conflicts of interest
We have no conflicts of interest to disclose.
Funding
This work was supported by Higher Education Fund of Macao SAR
Government under Grant HSS-IFT-2020-01.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2022.07.006.
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