1 Integrating climate change adaptation strategies in urban planning and landscape

2 design of Addis Ababa City, Ethiopia

3 Hailu Worku

4 Chair of Environmental Planning and Landscape Design, Ethiopian Institute of Architecture,

5 Building Construction and City Development, P.O.Box 518, Addis Ababa University, Addis
6 Ababa, Ethiopia

7 e-mail: hailu.worku@eiabc.edu.et

8 Abstract

9 It is now recognized that climate change (CC) poses a serious threat to sustainable

10 development of Addis Ababa city. As a consequence, city authorities are showing increasing

11 interest to streamline CC in city development planning in a more comprehensive and

12 integrated approach. Nevertheless, the integration of CC adaptation into urban planning (UP)

13 and landscape design (LD) was not given adequate consideration by planners and designers

14 as a result of capacity gaps. The objective of this work is (i) to summarize the current state of

15 knowledge on, and conceptualize the core elements of, CC impacts and responses in Addis

16 Ababa in terms of their implication for UP and LD, (ii) to develop a common understanding

17 with urban planners and related professionals on how better UP and LD can contribute to CC

18 adaptation, and (iii) to mainstreaming CC in future UP and LD endeavors. The result of this

19 study shows that integrating CC response options into UP and LD at the city, sub

20 city/catchment, neighborhood, site/project and building levels will enhance the sustainability

21 of the city with respect to its resilience to flood risk hazards, water supply during drought

22 periods and resilience to urban heat island effects.

23 Keywords: Addis Ababa; Climate Change; Urban Planning; Landscape Design; Adaptation;

24 Sustainability;

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25 1. Introduction

26 CC poses a serious threat to sustainable urban development, placing many cities at risk.

27 Despite many uncertainties concerning the magnitude and frequency of hazards, and their

28 specific impacts, CC will inevitably increase the susceptibility of urban environment if no

29 effective adaptation takes place (IPCC, 2007; UNHABITAT, 2011). As a consequence, city

30 authorities are increasingly facing the challenge of finding ways to include adaptation

31 strategies in their work (Wamsler et al., 2013). With CC adaptation being still a relatively

32 new field of activity, related knowledge and competence is still scarce and fragmented

33 (UNISDR, 2010).

34 Various studies (e.g. McSweeney, et al., 2008; Ward, and Lasage, 2009; Conway, et al.,

35 2010; Capuano, et al., 2013; Jalayer, 2013; De Risi et al., 2013; Jalayer, et al., 2014; Cavan,

36 et al., 2014) have conducted studies related to CC country profiles, CC scenarios, CC impacts

37 and the vulnerability of urban system in Addis Ababa. A foundation for the assessment of

38 CC scenarios and their impact on urban areas in Africa with focus on the city of Addis Ababa

39 is provided by Di Roucco et al. (2013). Jalayer, et al (2013) conducted CC induced risk

40 analysis of Addis Ababa city. The delineation of flood-prone areas and the identification of

41 residential hotspots in Addis Ababa and Dar es Salaam was conducted by De Risi et al (2013)

42 and probabilistic GIS-based method for delineation of urban flooding hotspots was conducted

43 by Jalayer, et al. (2014). CC induced heat wave hazard in Dar Es Salaam and Addis Ababa

44 was evaluated by Capuano, et al., 2013) and urban morphological determinants of

45 temperature regulating ecosystem services in two African cities was performed by Cavan, et

46 al. (2014).

47 All these studies have deliberated on analysis of CC impact and vulnerability to the urban

48 system in Addis Ababa but there is no attempt made so far to integrate CC impacts and

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49 vulnerability mapping in UP and LD of Addis Ababa city. As a result, information on the

50 integration of CC adaptation strategies and UP activities are not available.

51 The way cities grow is both a key driver of CC and at the same time makes the urban

52 population very vulnerable to CC impacts. The predominant planning practices seem not to

53 offer sufficient answers to this double challenge. There is growing consensus that appropriate

54 UP and LD approaches are key to mitigating and adapting to CC. The growing number of

55 extreme weather events of the last few years and their dramatic impact on the fragile urban

56 infrastructures and on settlements in risk-prone areas illustrate the urgency of reducing the

57 risk through better planning and design practices. UP and LD have the potential to reduce

58 vulnerability to the different CC related hazards like floods, drought, and Urban Heat Island

59 (UHI) effect.

60 Climate awareness in spatial planning has increased over recent decades due to more frequent

61 occurrences of extreme-weather disturbances. Concepts as mitigation, adaptation and

62 resilience have become more prominent in the light of these developments, as much to

63 prevent as to deal with climate-related disturbances. Because investments in defense projects

64 are costly and difficult to achieve, increasingly more adaptive strategies need to be

65 considered for land use management in and around cities. To this end, new planning

66 practices can help mainstream CC considerations into urban development processes. For new

67 UP and design practices to be efficient, they will need to find a way of incorporating CC

68 responses into the current urban realities and future planning approaches.

69 The studies mentioned above show that Addis Ababa is vulnerable to CC impacts such as

70 flooding and urban heat island effects over recent years. These impacts are further

71 exacerbated by rapid population growth, improper urbanization and lack of climate sensitive

72 UP and LD even in a newly (2017) finalized master plan, despite various recommendation

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73 provided by experts and academicians. As a result, the opportunity for integrating CC

74 impacts in the city master plan and LD is missed. This is mainly due to the knowledge gap of

75 urban planners in streamlining CC in urban development endeavors. To integrate CC impacts

76 in city development planning, it is important to identify key components of CC impacts and

77 vulnerable urban system that contribute to the deterioration of the environmental, social and

78 economic condition of the city.

79 The objectives of this work are (i) to summarize the current state of knowledge on, and

80 conceptualize the core elements of, CC impacts, vulnerability and responses in Addis Ababa,

81 (ii) to develop a common understanding on how better UP and LD can contribute to CC

82 adaptation, and (iii) to mainstreaming CC in future UP and LD activities.

83 2. Methodology

84 2.1 Study area

85 The study is conducted in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Fig.1) which is located at the geographical

86 center of Ethiopia between 8048' and 906' North latitudes and 38038' and 38054' East

87 longitudes. The present land area is 540 km2 and the altitude of the city ranges from the

88 highest peak at mount Entoto in the north which is 3100 m.a.s.l to 2200 m.a.s.l at the lower

89 part of Akaki plain in the southern part.

90 Addis Ababa is located on a highland /mountainous and rugged topographic areas and facing

91 potentially high rates of erosion and flooding. Addis Ababa is endowed with three major

92 rivers: Kebena, Little Akaki and Big Akaki rivers and numerous streams, which are starting

93 from north, northwest and northeastern part of Addis Ababa and flowing towards the south

94 and drain to the Awash River. It has a variable rainfall, with alternating flooding and drought

95 years. Addis Ababa experienced increases in temperature above the sixty year average

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 96 during the last ten years. The impacts of extreme weather events (including surface/flush

97 flooding, river flooding and drought) in recent years combined with high concentration of

98 people and economic activity makes Addis Ababa highly vulnerable to CC impacts. This

99 suggests that CC on the natural environment and urban system of Addis Ababa could be

100 among the most serious in the country. Thus, it provided a good study area to explore the

101 practical issues and decisions involved.

102

103 Fig. 1: Location map of Addis Ababa

104 2.2 Processes and methods

105 The key challenges in integrating climate change adaptation strategies with UP and LD in

106 Addis Ababa are skill and awareness gaps in vulnerability analysis and developing

107 appropriate adaptation intervention and the conflicting land-use policy options between

108 addressing climate change adaptation measures and land-use for development purposes.

109 Recommending appropriate adaptation measure and testing of whether there are land use

110 policy conflicts and if there are any, the nature of these conflicts and the ways to reduce

111 them, is the topic of this paper.

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112 The methods used in this study were mainly qualitative. Review and an in-depth analysis of

113 existing key literatures and city documents, field observations and mapping, interviews,

114 expert judgment, internet research including best practices all over the world are the main

115 methods used to collect information about the climate impacts that are of the greatest concern

116 to the city and the adaptation measures the city has to formulate in response to achieve its

117 objectives. Secondary research consisting of an extensive literature review on climate change

118 impacts, its causes, and possible strategies where these strategies had been implemented,

119 attempted to be implemented, or modeled to adapt to it has also been examined. Observed

120 meteorological data and remotely-sensed satellite data - Landsat thermal data with a spatial

121 resolution of 30m - for the city were used to characterize the spatial and temporal dimensions

122 of the city’s near-surface air temperatures and heat island.

123 The review of international literature on climate change has helped to identify impacts of

124 climate change on urban system and to establish leading practice principles and approaches in

125 planning to reduce climate change impacts and to adapt to climatic changes already under

126 way.

127 A targeted review focused on recent work on local planning practices relating to climate

128 change mitigation or adaptation undertaken by the city but also includes a limited group of

129 leading practice examples from other local government areas internationally was made. The

130 review includes planning approaches directly or indirectly relevant to adaptation and wether

131 this measures are in conflict with city development. Then interventions about ways in which

132 these potential conflicts could be avoided were recommended.

133 To identify barriers to implementation of these strategies was done mainly through primary

134 research. Through interviewing city officials, I was able to gain an understanding of what

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135 problems exist to implement the strategies and how to integrate these strategies more

136 effectively with UP and LD.

137 3. Impacts of CC and climate variability on Addis Ababa

138 CC affects urban areas through two main mechanisms: long-term and gradual climate risks

139 and extreme weather events. Long-term and gradual climate risks involve global temperature

140 rise, changes in precipitation, changes in other variables and weather patterns and changes

141 in large-scale circulations. These changes to the global earth system will be experienced

142 locally as changes in water availability, drought, storm surge damage, land loss, and seasonal

143 climate patterns. As a result of extreme weather events, the frequency and intensity of some

144 disasters such as droughts and floods could increase, with an adverse impact on the urban

145 social, economic and environmental assets.

146

147 Fig.2: Climate change impacts and risks of Addis Ababa

148 CC in Addis Ababa is expressed by increase in intensity and frequency of heavy rainfall and

149 consequent flooding, reduced rainfall and consequent drought, and extreme temperature with

150 more heat waves and hotter and drier events. The main potential vulnerability to CC of the

151 built environment has been identified as being due to extreme events-floods, drought and

152 heat-waves (Fig. 2).

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153 3. 1 Impacts of increased, intense and variable rainfall

154 Increased, intense and variable rainfall is the cause of flooding in Addis Ababa. Addis Ababa

155 is vulnerable to flooding from a variety of sources, key of which are flooding from the three

156 main rivers and their tributaries (fluvial flooding) and from heavy rainfall (surface water

157 flooding) as a result of improper drainage network associated with roads (Fig.3). Because

158 Addis Ababa is located on the highlands ranging in elevation between 3100and 2200 masl,

159 location and topography make some parts of Addis vulnerable to flooding. Existing state of

160 the drainage system, road network and sewerage system exposes most parts of the city to

161 street and riverine flooding. Landslides are becoming a major threat, especially in Gulele and

162 Yeka sub-cities in the northern part of Addis Ababa. Due to construction in the city (frequent

163 excavations), the ground is becoming increasingly unstable, causing major landslides. Most

164 of the population in flood prone areas lives in houses constructed from mud and wood and

165 greatly increase their vulnerability. Current urbanization trends would significantly reduce

166 the city's vegetated areas and riverine corridor and when combined with the changing rainfall

167 patterns, this will dramatically exacerbate flooding problems in the city.

168 The impact of a major flood in Addis Ababa would be significant because it is heavily

169 urbanized and 10 per cent of the city’s surface area lies on the floodplains and banks of Addis

170 Ababa’s rivers. Currently significant number of people, properties, and a substantial

171 proportion of the city's infrastructure are at surface and fluvial flood risk. The consequences

172 of flooding will increase as Addis Ababa’s population grows and more property and

173 infrastructure is located in areas of flood risk. There will also be a large number of flood

174 vulnerable communities at risk. Degree of sensitivity to anticipated flooding, therefore, varies

175 from community to community due to variations in topography, poverty levels, access to

176 basic social services, quality of housing and settlement patterns.

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177

178

179 Fig.3: Areas of Addis Ababa at flood risk: a) areas of fluvial flood risk based on wetness index (from De Risi et
180 al., 2013), b) delineation based on aerial photographs and field mapping, and c) hot-spots of street flooding
181 areas as a result of improper drainage network design (modified from AACRA, 2013).

182 Flood risk in Addis Ababa is principally unmanaged and there is no significant system of

183 flood defenses and drainage networks. Addis Ababa has, therefore, a lower and much more

184 variable standard of protection against fluvial and surface water flooding. The probability of

185 all forms of flooding is projected to increase as a result of surface sealing become intense and

186 heavy rainfall events become more frequent and intense. The cumulative impact of paving of

187 front and back gardens has increased the pressure on the drainage system and increase the

188 likelihood of flooding. The drainage system is designed on ad-hoc basis without taking the

189 amount of storm water it is expected to transport into consideration. Advance warning times

190 for fluvial and surface water flooding do not exist and public awareness of flood risk and

191 capacity to act is very low.

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192 a) b)

193

194 c) d)

195

196 e) f)

197

198 g) h)

199

200 Fig.4: Flood impacts in Addis Ababa: a) Collapsed stream banks and land loss; b) damage to transport
201 infrastructure (bridge); c-f) flooded streets in the middle of the city causing disruption of the transport system;
202 g) damaged roads as a result of flooding leading to increased maintenance and replacement requirements; h)
203 flood markers showing overtopped bridge by flood

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204 Flood impacts in Addis Ababa include:

205  loss of life and injuries (humans and animals);

206  health impacts due to increased pollution, contamination and disease from flood and

207 sewer water and contact with contaminated flood water;

208  direct damage to property and public utility objects and networks (destruction of

209 infrastructure such as residential, commercial and public buildings, roads, bridges and

210 other transport infrastructure, space and assets, parking lots, pipe systems, electricity,

211 communication, water, other vulnerable objects);

212  soil erosion and land degradation, widening of river channels and losing of land

213 space;

214  disruption of traffic, electricity network, communication system, break-up of

215 communities and social networks; loss of business and income and delayed economic

216 development; dislocation of people, etc, (Fig.4).

217 3.2 Impacts of reduced rainfall

218 As a result of variability in rainfall, reduced rainfall and drought are ongoing states in Addis

219 Ababa and are likely to occur occasionally in the future with CC. The most significant and

220 inherent risk considered critical and require immediate and ongoing management as far as

221 drought is concerned is insufficient water supply for Addis Ababa. Current occasionally

222 extremely dry conditions in Addis Ababa are projected to persist, with an increase in the

223 duration of periods between rainfalls. Frequent and prolonged droughts would affect city’s

224 water supply, water-dependent businesses, Addis Ababa’s green spaces, and biodiversity and

225 water courses.

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226 The likelihood of drought having a significant impact on Addis Ababa is currently high. As in

227 most years, there is insufficient water to meet demand. The present supply is only met by

228 withdrawing more water from the environment than can be sustained in the future. In the

229 future, less seasonal rainfall, greater demand for water and the limited amount/volume of

230 water we can remove from the environment will threaten the security of supply.

231 Without action, Addis Ababa will experience an increasing frequency of drought.

232 Management measures (such as water storage, water recycling, restrictions on water use, for

233 example non-essential uses bans) are inevitable. Increasing water storage and reducing its

234 water use could improve its drought resilience, safeguard the environment and save residents

235 money through reduced utility bills.

236 CC is expected to affect water availability and related ecosystem through:

237  reducing river /surface waters flows;

238  reducing groundwater replenishment (recharge);

239  increasing evaporation;

240  increasing demand for water from people and wildlife;

241  Impacting biodiversity due to insufficient environmental flows resulting from

242 reduction in water availability;

243  Increasing health problems related to declining water quality; cause water-borne

244 infectious diseases associated with water;

245  Increasing issues of social inequity and public conflict resulting from prolonged water

246 restrictions, causing incidents of water theft and restrictions infringement;

247  Causing side-effects on tourism;

248  Causing huge impact on the energy sector;

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249  Creating social impacts by the possible increase of water prices due to the

250 implementation of compensating measures;

251  Resulting in income losses and fall in GDP growth.

252 3.3 Impacts of extreme temperature/overheating

253 Overheating is a term used to describe when temperatures are hot enough to affect residents

254 health and comfort, or affect the infrastructure. Heat waves are typically defined as extended

255 periods of hotter than average temperatures. As a result of CC, extreme heat events are

256 predicted to become more frequent, intense and longer lasting over most areas of Addis

257 Ababa. Without action, the risk of overheating and increase in intensity and frequency of heat

258 waves is expected to increase in the future as average temperatures get hotter, and as Addis

259 Ababa grows.

260 While physical CCs can impact upon both rural and urban areas, urban settlements generate

261 unique local conditions that interact with heat events. Compared to rural areas and city

262 peripheries, central Addis Ababa tend to have higher air and surface temperatures due to the

263 urban heat island effect - the tendency of the city to retain heat more than its peripheries and

264 surrounding rural areas. For Addis Ababa, this phenomenon has caused air temperatures that

265 are upto 5°C higher than the city’s surrounding area. Mean maximum and minimum annual

266 temperatures have increased by about 1.1 and 1.140c respectively, in the last 60 years.

267 Climate models suggest that Addis Ababa is expected to be warmer on average by 1.3 0c in

268 2030, 2.70c in 2060 and 4.20c in 2090 when compared to year 1900. The physical layout of

269 the city areas, their population size and density, and structural features of the built

270 environment all influence the strength of the urban heat-island effect. Stronger heat island

271 effects have been linked to compactness and limited area of green space. The heat generated

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272 in the city by traffic and other energy uses also acts to raise temperatures having significant

273 local impact in high-density areas.

274 Wind plays a special role in the interaction between the urban fabric and weather, not only

275 because reduced wind speed generally increases UHI strength, but also because wind paths

276 may offer opportunities to ventilate the city. Streets, oriented in the same direction as wind

277 flow, tend to channel the air into the city. However, the planning of the city did not take

278 climate elements into consideration to make use of this opportunity.

279 The factors responsible for increasing risk of overheating in Addis Ababa include :

280  Weather condition - UHI effects have a strong relationship with weather parameters

281 such as wind and cloud.

282  Its large size, geometry and materials used in construction of urban spaces define UHI

283 effects characteristics. Orientation and spacing of buildings also play a crucial role in

284 formation of urban heat islands. Dense high rise buildings and narrow streets can

285 restrict air movement and trap heat thus building up hot spots.

286  Function of the city and increase in man-made heat contributions - Anthropogenic

287 heat generated by human activity e.g. released by combustion of fuels from mobile or

288 stationary sources, energy use, water use and pollution have a bilateral relationship

289 with the UHI effect..

290  Increase in development density from Addis Ababa’s growth

291  The physical, human and environmental geography of a city including topography,

292 rural surroundings and climate have strong relation to UHI effect

293  Reduced evaporative cooling.

294 CC impacts of overheating are:

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295 o An increase in heat-related discomfort, illness and mortality;

296 o An increase in demand for energy intensive cooling, such as air conditioning;

297 o A rise in the demand for water, increasing the pressure on limited water resources

298 causing water shortage;

299 o Impacts on water resources (water pollution caused by a combination of low water

300 flow and heat;

301 o Damage to temperature-sensitive infrastructure (such as electrical systems and

302 transport networks) and increased maintenance costs of assets and infrastructure;

303 o An increase in fire-risk of green spaces;

304 o Changes in patterns of vector-borne diseases;

305 o Increased prevalence of food borne disease;

306 o Disruption to any outdoor event due to hot weather;

307 o impacts on economy (reduced productivity of workers in conditions of extreme heat).

308 4. Climate change response strategies and their implication for city planning and LD

309 4.1 Response strategies to flood impacts and UP and LD implications

310 To respond to the impacts of flooding and to make flood prone areas more resilient, and to

311 avoid/reduce loss of life and damage to property from flooding, the feasible strategies to be

312 implemented in Addis Ababa include (i) identifying and mapping flood-prone areas and

313 division of the areas into various flood management zones (ii) re-naturalizing rivers and

314 channels /river restoration, (iii) managing surface water /storm water at city, sub-city,

315 neighborhood, site and building levels, (iv) flood defense and accommodation, and (v) flood

316 risk management.

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317 4.1.1 Identifying and mapping flood plain/ flood-prone areas and division of the areas

318 into various flood management zones

319 To limit development in flood plain/flood-prone areas, vulnerable zones should be indicated

320 on an environmental map/spatial plan. Mapping of flood risks areas - who and what is at

321 flood risk from all sources of flooding today, and in the future taking CC scenarios into

322 account - should be conducted at the city, sub-city, neighborhood and project/site levels.

323 To ensure safety, flood-prone zones should be established according to flood risk and site

324 elevation, and define areas where construction is allowed and areas where construction is

325 forbidden. The natural floodplains should be preserved to provide space for streams and

326 rivers to expand during periods of high rainfall. Floodplains should be separated from flood-

327 safe zone by setback line and should be classified in two different zones: (i) inviolable zone/

328 restricted zone, which is strongly vulnerable to floods and should be free from any

329 construction; and (ii) buffer zone, where seasonal and occasional floods are experienced.

330

331 Fig.5: Map of Addis Ababa showing the location of flood plains and decentralized urban basins

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332 Inviolable Zones are areas which are extremely vulnerable to floods and are used to retain the

333 regular floods. Any housing structure or land use which impacts the natural setting of the

334 river or channel in these zones should be banned. In addition, development and infrastructure

335 in these hazardous areas should be moved or abandoned. Land use planning should avoid

336 locating structures in these risky areas. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) should be

337 utilized for any sought intervention in this area.

338 To utilize land within a floodplain and to ensure that flood water are not constrained, a buffer

339 zone in the floodplain should be developed. Within this buffer zone flood-friendly land use

340 /open land uses/ or development such as agriculture, parks, playgrounds or flood-proofed

341 buildings to ensure the hydrologic function of the natural flood plain might be allowed but

342 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for development site must be conducted before

343 making any decision.

344 To provide sufficient distance from water bodies, a construction setback from riverbanks,

345 floodplains, flood ways and generally flood-prone areas should be maintained. The setback

346 line should be defined by the Environmental Impact Assessment and should separate flood-

347 prone areas from flood-safe areas.

348 In flood plain/ flood-prone areas, flood damage can, therefore, be avoided by appropriate

349 spatial planning which involves avoiding locating flood-vulnerable land uses in high flood-

350 risk areas and identifying where current developments should be removed or exchanged for

351 less flood-sensitive land uses in the future. Banning / avoiding construction of building and

352 other important structures like houses, health facilities, industrial buildings, etc., in current

353 and future flood prone areas should be made by spatial planning to avoid flood damage.

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354 Spatial planning plays an important role in flood prevention by restricting building in flood

355 plains, conserving flood retention areas and minimising impermeable surfaces. A green

356 scoring factor for new urban developments which ensures that a certain proportion of the

357 development will consist of green space should be used. Different solutions should receive

358 different scores depending on their efficiency (e.g. sealed surface = 0; green roof = 0.7;

359 vegetation on the ground = 1), which allows the developer some flexibility but also ensures

360 that the requirements for green space provision are met.

361 4.1.2 Re-naturalizing rivers and channels /river restoration

362 To assure a successful flood protection, rivers and channels should be re-naturalized to their

363 original state. This will encourage infiltration, help to reduce bank erosion and enhance the

364 natural habitat along the rivers and channels. Four main strategies to re-naturalize rivers are:

365 (i) River channel improvement by removing obstruction such as solid waste, weirs and

366 impounding constructions in order to increase flood retention capacity and retain the

367 original flow velocity. Modifying rivers and channels by removing sediments and

368 increasing the depth and/or width of channels are not recommended unless the

369 assessments of the modifications recommends.

370 (ii) Re-meandering riverbeds to their natural curves to enhance storage capacity of river

371 plains, delay flood peaks, reduce flow rates and erosion, increased bank infiltration

372 and wider distribution of silt deposition.

373 (iii) Reconnecting rivers with floodplains to allow better water storage capacity by

374 lowering riverbanks to their natural levels, lowering embankments and setting back

375 levees and dikes.

376 (iv) Re-naturalizing embankments/ increasing natural river bank stabilization measures or

377 preserving ecological buffers. Embankments should only be considered for highly

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378 vulnerable stretches of the riverbank and less vulnerable banks should be returned to

379 close to natural conditions. Where necessary, embankment design should reflect

380 natural conditions using techniques such as planted gabion or cellular concrete blocks

381 instead of solid concrete lining. These measures help to protect embankments from

382 erosion, enhance infiltration of floodwater and slow down flow velocity. Additionally,

383 the wider distribution of sediment deposition will provide better conditions for

384 vegetation growth creating wildlife habitat and improving the aesthetics of the rivers

385 and channels.

386

387 4.1.3 Managing surface water /stormwater at city, sub-city, neighborhood, site and

388 building levels

389 Surface water /stormwater should be managed at catchment, site, source and inlet levels

390 which are commonly considered as sustainable storm water management techniques. This

391 technique reduces the amount of storm water which needs to be taken up by the sewage

392 system and thus reduce the necessity to extend and upgrade the existing sewage system. It

393 includes a variety of techniques that aim to reduce the quantity and improve the quality of

394 storm water at or near its source by using infrastructure or natural physical resources such as

395 soil and water conservation techniques. The requirements of sustainable stormwater

396 management strategies in the context of Addis Ababa at the catchment, neighborhood, site

397 and building levels should involve (i) infiltration and permeability, (ii) retention and

398 detention/storage, and (iii) drainage and conveyance.

399 Infiltration and Permeability

400 Facilities for infiltration and permeability include:

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401 Reduction of impervious areas: To reduce the overall run-off and to provide more space for

402 water infiltration, the impervious coverage of the site should be limited to a minimum. To

403 reduce the building footprint, the building density has to be increased on built-up surfaces by

404 relaxing the building height limitations. Reduction of road widths and the amount of surface

405 parking should be considered, especially in compact high-density areas where public

406 transport and services are within walking distance. Impervious surface materials for open

407 spaces should be avoided.

408 Absorbent landscape (soil and vegetation): To optimize stormwater runoff, the landscape on

409 site should be designed to increase the water-absorbing capacity of the urban landscape

410 allowing for infiltration and evapotranspiration. Typically, landscape soils store up to about

411 18% of their volume as water, before becoming saturated and generating flow-through or

412 runoff. The absorbent soil surface layer should have a high organic content and the surface

413 vegetation should be composed of herbaceous plants with a thickly matted rooting zone (like

414 shrubs or grass), deciduous trees with high leaf density, or mixed growth forests. Runoff from

415 landscape areas can be reduced by up to 50% by providing a 300 mm layer of landscaped,

416 absorbent soil.

417 Permeable pavements and surfaces: To prevent a runoff from paved surfaces, permeable

418 paving materials such as cobble stone roads and parking lots should be used. Permeable

419 paving allows infiltration, either because it is porous or because specific openings such as

420 spaces between paving blocks have been provided. In areas with limited vehicular traffic

421 permeable paving can be applied on driveways, shoulders of roadways, sidewalks and

422 parking areas. A prerequisite for the use of pervious paving designed for infiltration is that

423 the groundwater table seasonal height must be more than 1m below the base of the paved

424 area. This is, therefore, only effective in elevated areas. In some areas of Addis Ababa,

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425 however, permeable pavements and surfaces are designed in areas of shallow groundwater

426 level and as the result the pavement has sunk to a considerable level.

427 Infiltration basins: To temporarily store surface water runoff, infiltration basins should be

428 considered. These allow water to gradually infiltrate through the soil of the basin floors. This

429 practice helps to recharge groundwater to balance the water resources. Infiltration basins may

430 take any shape and should also receive stormwater from drainage solutions on site. The

431 basins and drainage systems should be part of the LD as they can both contribute to the site’s

432 aesthetic value, and facilitate biodiversity protection through habitat provision.

433 Water retention and detention/storage

434 Water retention and detention/storage facilities should be designed in the city using public

435 realm involving urban forests, urban agriculture, parkland, sports fields, public squares, road

436 spaces, university campuses, school compounds or below ground spaces so that flooding of

437 more vulnerable land uses can be avoided, or reduced. At present, this option is underutilized

438 in Addis Ababa and many areas of open space could be designed to reduce the risk to built-up

439 areas and roads. It can also increase the attractiveness of public spaces. The specific facilities

440 for water retention and detention include:

441 Decentralized urban storage basins/dams: To hold water temporarily and regulate the flow of

442 water through drainage systems and to decrease flood level in rivers and channels during

443 flood events, a network of urban storage basins/ dams should be planned in the city. Excess

444 floodwater can be held from entering the river or be diverted from rivers and channels to the

445 basins, and released back to the water network when flood events are over, or when river

446 capacity is available. These urban basins should be located in the city plan making use of

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447 urban forest, urban agricultural areas, big parks and river flood plain after conducting

448 environmental impact assessment.

449 Temporary water storage: To attenuate flood flow, storage of a significant volume and

450 controlled overflow of water should occur naturally in a catchment, for example within a

451 floodplain, or in ponds. Artificially created storage facilities include flood storage reservoirs

452 and retention and detention ponds such as bioretention basins. In the context of Addis Ababa

453 where space is limited, it is possible to make use of areas with other primary functions, for

454 example parks, playing fields, school compounds or university campuses or car parks, to

455 provide temporary stormwater storage.

456 Constructed wetlands: Constructed wetland systems are shallow extensively vegetated water

457 bodies that use enhanced sedimentation, fine filtration and pollutant uptake processes to

458 remove pollutants from stormwater. To improve the urban stormwater quality, constructed

459 (artificial) wetlands should be designed as part of the accessible open space areas.

460 Rainwater harvesting and re-use: To increase the supply of water in areas where water is

461 scarce and to reduce peak runoff, rainwater should be harvested within Addis Ababa

462 watershed by collecting and then storing the water in numerous tanks and storage structures.

463 The water thus stored can be used for non-drinking purposes resulting in conservation of

464 potable water resources. It can also be used for drinking purposes if proper purification

465 measures are installed. The expansion of stormwater harvesting and re-use is the highest

466 value, highest priority adaptation action that can be undertaken by Addis Ababa City.

467 Harvesting and re-using stormwater effectively works to reduce likelihood and consequence

468 of many risks. The benefits of re-using stormwater include (i) diversification of the water

469 supply to the city, reducing any impacts of drought and low rainfall, most notably in the

470 maintenance of parks, gardens and sports fields; (ii) helping to cool the urban environment by

22
471 the proliferation of urban water bodies, contributing to the control of several extreme heat-

472 related risks; (iii) potentially reducing the likelihood of urban flash flooding in major rainfall

473 events; and (iv) providing new, high quality amenity values through the creation of urban

474 water features.

475 Green roofs and façades: To limit the impact of unavoidable impervious surfaces, green

476 roofs of buildings should be designed. Green roofs collect rainwater, which is used for

477 building cooling and insulation and providing water for rainwater re-use. Green façades also

478 collect rainwater and are made up of climbing plants, either growing directly on a wall or

479 specially designed supporting structures.

480 Drainage and Conveyance

481 Drainage and Conveyance facilities are recommended in areas of excess storm water and

482 include:

483 Infiltration drainage: It is recommended that infiltration drainage solutions are developed to

484 transfer excess water from the site to urban basins or drainage system, where infiltration and

485 a reduction in drained runoff volume can take place. Infiltration drainage techniques include

486 swales, grassed filter strips and filter drains. If these solutions cannot be applied, relief

487 channels/subsidiary channels, drainage or sewers might be an option in dense and highly

488 developed areas.

489 Drainage and the sewerage system: To carry storm water/flood water away from the city, the

490 following drainage/sewerage improvement activities should be conducted:

491  Channel improvement (dredging and straightening of channels) to facilitate

492 outfall/increase river water flow and the volume that can be accommodated at any

493 particular time;

23
494  Improve drainage and the sewerage system design by incorporating rainfall

495 projections and catchment analysis;

496  Continued upgrading, maintenance and cleaning of drainage system;

497  Increasing capacity of storm water collection systems and better drainage and storm

498 water capture;

499  Subsidiary channels or relief channels should be designed to reduce discharge to the

500 main river channel during very high floods.

501

502 4.1.4 Flood defense and accommodation

503 In areas where there is a necessity to build in flood plain areas and where important land uses

504 cannot be relocated, flood defenses actions such as backfill, dikes, flood protection walls,

505 retaining walls, gabion or piles, river dams, retention ponds and barrages should be used to

506 protect/ prevent/ defend vulnerable land uses and to accommodate flood.

507 Backfill and elevation of construction site for high priority development areas: In case of an

508 existing urban area or a planned high priority development area identified in the city plan,

509 which is located in flood risk zone, filling of the overall construction site to a minimum

510 height can be considered for the development site. These measures should not be planned

511 within the defined inviolable zone, but can be considered for the flood-prone buffer zone.

512 Backfill is costly and can cause new flood risk for the surrounding areas and increase

513 downstream floods, and can result in land subsidence. It is generally not recommended. To

514 limit backfill in flood-prone areas, only urban areas with a high priority should be allowed to

515 use backfill measures to facilitate future development after evaluation of environmental

516 Impact.

24
517 Structural flood protection for high priority development areas: In case of an existing urban

518 area or a planned high priority development area that is identified in the city plan, a

519 permanent flood defense/ structural protection for the development site could be considered.

520 These measures should not also be planned within the defined inviolable zone, but can be

521 consider for the flood-prone buffer zone. These defenses can be dykes, dams, levees, sand

522 bags or floodgates. Although these dry flood-protection measures are generally not

523 recommended because they are costly, requires professional engineering technologies, good

524 operation and maintenance, and can increase downstream floods, they could be designed after

525 critically evaluating the environmental impact.

526 Building protection in Buffer Zones: To make new buildings and infrastructure flood proof by

527 appropriate design and material use, innovative design of buildings and infrastructure such as

528 elevation of buildings in areas at risk, backfill, elevated entrances, building on poles are some

529 options to be considered.

530 To update building codes to require more flood-resistant structures in floodplains, integrating

531 CC into building codes and spatial planning and adapting building and planning codes to

532 include flood resistance should be considered. Inclusion of flood resistance into building

533 codes can decrease the losses from floods. However, CC has not yet been included in the

534 Building Code of Ethiopia for the design of buildings and other civil engineering works and

535 construction products.

536 The following solutions specifically apply to areas or buildings that are located within buffer

537 zones that experience seasonal or occasional flooding.

538 Backfill and elevation of single buildings: To enable development close to water bodies with

539 flood risk, a filling of a single building block to a minimum height can be considered

25
540 according to flood risk and elevation of the site. This measure is intended to fill the

541 foundations to above the level of the groundwater table. This measure should be designed

542 after conducting EIA and in close coordination with environmental specialists. While this

543 measure helps to protect the building from floods, it does not help to mitigate flood risk in

544 general and it is a costly solution. Therefore it is generally not recommended.

545 Permanent waterproof building floors and walls: To increase the built structure resilience to

546 flooding, permanent waterproof floors and walls should be installed. To prevent seepage,

547 ground floors and basements should be sealed by flood resistant walls, reaching a height of at

548 least 50cm above the maximum projected flood level. In addition, doorsteps should be raised

549 as high as possible.

550 Flood resilient ground floor: To allow development without impacting the site elevation,

551 buildings should be designed on stilts or alternatively the floor levels intended for residential

552 or commercial use should be raised, so that the ground floors with temporary uses like

553 parking or storage are allowed to temporarily flooded without extensive damage.

554 4.1.5 Flood risk management

555 Flood risk can be managed through (i) forecasting and early warning systems (ii) awareness

556 raising, knowledge and capacity building (iii) regulations and fiscal incentives, and (iv)

557 insurance of damages.

558 Forecasting and early warning systems: Mapping of flood risks, forecasting and early

559 warning systems enhances flood preparedness. Warning the authorities and the public by

560 forecasting severe weather events several days or hours ahead of approaching events is

561 crucial for emergency actions. These can include evacuating vulnerable areas and buildings

562 and the transportation of the population to shelters. This can be done by (i) increasing the use

26
563 of climate and weather information in managing risk and events –including the systems that

564 ensure populations at risk get warnings and are able and willing to move temporarily to safe

565 locations when needed, and (ii) updating flood maps to reflect changes in risk associated with

566 CC.

567 Table 1: Response strategies to flood impact that should be integrated in UP and LD at different levels

No. Flood impact response strategy to be City Catchment/ Site/ Buildin

integrated in UP and LD at different levels level Sub-city and Project g level
Neighbourhoo level
d levels
1 Identifying and mapping flood-prone areas
Divide flood plain areas into various zones:
define inviolable zone, create buffer zone and
regulate setback
2 Re-naturalize river and channels
3 Managing storm water
3.1 Infiltration and Permeability
Reduction of impervious area
Absorbent Landscape
Permeable pavement and surfaces
Infiltration basins
3.2 Retention and storage
Decentralized Urban basins
Constructed wetlands
Temporary water storage in urban areas
Rainwater harvesting and re-use
Green Roofs and Green Façades
3.3 Drainage and conveyance
Relief channels
Infiltration drainage
Drainage and sewers
4 Defense and accommodation
Backfill and elevation of the site
Structural flood protection measures/ elevated
permanent water fronts
Building protection in buffer zone
Backfill and elevation of single buildings
Permanent waterproof building floors and
walls
Flood resilient ground floor
5 Flood Risk Management

568

569 Awareness raising, knowledge and capacity building for all groups to cope with floods and

570 flood risks: Awareness raising, knowledge, capacity building and training are important tools

27
571 to enable cities and citizens to cope with flooding. The goal is to reduce the risk of wealth

572 destruction and human health impact by increasing the resilience of buildings and

573 infrastructures and by preparing evacuation and recovery plans preventively.

574 Regulations and fiscal incentives: These measures consist of (i) taxes or incentives, such as

575 concerning the amount of sealed area per property, amount of waste water used (including

576 rain water); (ii) obliging all new development projects to allow for storm water channeling;

577 (iii) collecting taxes based on the imperviousness level of properties; and (iv) disconnecting

578 rain water drainage from the sewer network of all urban areas in order to separate rain and

579 wastewater

580 Insurance of damages: Insurance serves to finance the repair or replacement of structures that

581 suffer irregular and unforeseeable losses. Ethiopian insurance companies have not yet

582 included CC driven flood events into their insurance portfolio. Well-designed insurance

583 contracts can provide incentives for risk reduction. However, insurance can also provide

584 disincentives for people to prevent losses if, for example, those insured become less diligent

585 in reducing losses due to their safety net.

586 4.2 Response strategies to drought impacts

587 To adapt against drought, it is important to avoid climate dependent water management and

588 prepare water resource management plans detailing how to provide sufficient water to meet

589 demands and manage environmental impacts. This plan should balance supply and demand

590 by decreasing water use or increasing supply, i.e. through demand and supply management

591 over a long period of time.

592 4.2.1 Water supply management

28
593 The most urgent strategy for intervention in the water supply management should focus on

594 expanding and diversifying water supply sources. This include construction of new surface

595 water reservoirs/dams, augmenting surface water supplies, inter-basin transfers, developing

596 new groundwater sources/boreholes, maximizing rainwater harvesting/storage by capturing

597 urban runoff through distributed water harvesting structures, developing advanced

598 wastewater treatment capacity/grey water recycling systems for effluent reuse in new and

599 retrofitted buildings. Effective leak detection and repair and enhancing green infrastructure

600 also contribute to the supply side.

601 4.2.2 Water Demand Management

602 Water demand management strategy that is considered appropriate for Addis Ababa is

603 demand reduction through water conservation and efficiency increase which should involve

604 reduction/restriction of high non-domestic water consumption through replacement by

605 recycled water, water recycling for other appropriate uses, using water-efficient technologies

606 and equipments that cut water use in buildings, active leakage management, behaviour

607 change/ awareness raising about water conservation, and economic incentives including

608 increasing supportive tariffs/pricing to encourage water conservation such as setting

609 progressive tariffs with a pricing structure that charges more for high consumption.

610 4.3 Response strategies to rising temperature and UHI impacts

611 Response strategies to rising temperature and UHI impacts include (i) developing urban

612 climate map to identify hot spots of UHI impact, (ii) establishing fresh air corridor at the city

613 level, (iii) providing high ratio of vegetated green surfaces at the city level, (iv) reduction of

614 ground temperature at the neighborhood/ site level, (v) integration of LD and architectural

615 measures, and (vi) reducing anthropogenic heat.

29
616 4.3.1 Developing urban climate map

617 To know where the UHI effects are severe and to prioritize heat vulnerable populations in the

618 city and to take the necessary measures, UHI hot spots in the city are mapped to integrate the

619 map into the planning of the Addis Ababa city. The parts of Addis Ababa affected by UHI

620 effect is shown in Fig. 6.

621 4.3.2 Providing fresh air corridor at the city level

622 At the same time, in terms of cooling down urban areas and to providing fresh air for heat-

623 stressed zones, the importance of providing fresh air corridors at the city level should be

624 emphasized. Through appropriate spatial planning, it is important to ensure that fresh air from

625 green areas outside the city can flow in. The main fresh air corridor of Addis Ababa should

626 cut the city in the northeast and southwest direction. Unfortunately, there is no space to

627 provide this orientation. It is, however, possible to major roads and rail tracks and preserve

628 the network of river buffers and streets with right orientation to serve the purpose (Fig.6).

629 Smaller, neighborhood level corridors should also be clearly defined and kept free from

630 development. For smaller corridors it is important that they are as long and as wide as

631 possible within the existing planning constraints since this will have an effect on the wind

632 exposure.

633 4.3.3 High ratio of vegetated green surfaces (urban forestry, urban parks and street

634 trees)

635 Trees and vegetation are simplest way in reducing UHI effect and in cooling the city through

636 encouraging evapotranspirative cooling and shading built surfaces. Hence increasing the

637 proportion of greenspace to urban land cover could be of great value. Urban temperatures can

638 be reduced substantially by planting trees which help in increasing the albedo of the surfaces.

30
639 Trees directly reduce CO2 from the atmosphere as they use the carbon from the atmosphere

640 in photosynthesis. The green ratio of 30% of the total land area for cities in Ethiopia,

641 according to the city planning strategy, should therefore, be implemented to provide the

642 sought ratio of vegetated green surfaces. It is recommended, to select native or climate

643 adapted trees and plants to minimize artificial irrigation requirements and to lower the

644 demand on the general water supply of the city.

645 4.3.4 Reduction of ground temperature at the neighborhood/ site level

646 At the development site level intelligent urban design has to be conducted to ensure sufficient

647 cooling and ventilation of urban space to create a pleasant climate at the pedestrian level.

648 These interventions include:

649 Orientation to prevailing wind: To ensure fresh air supply within city quarters both street

650 patterns and buildings should be oriented to the prevailing winds to create breeze pathways

651 that enhance natural ventilation. As wind directions in the tropics are seasonally variable, the

652 most reasonable orientation is the direction of the monsoonal wind. Streets should either be

653 parallel to the wind flow or angled by 30 to 60 degree. Furthermore, road cross-sections must

654 be wide and should not be blocked by smaller buildings or trees. Furthermore, it is important

655 to orientate streets and buildings to provide shade in hot seasons and passive solar gain in

656 cold season.

657 Facilitating ventilation by different building heights: To improve ventilation, buildings with

658 different heights should be designed to allow variations in wind speeds. Taller buildings are

659 able to catch wind on higher levels redirecting fresh air to the ground level. Therefore, these

660 taller buildings should be located downwind of lower buildings.

31
661 Increase vegetation: To provide fresh and cool air for city blocks, optimizing the street width

662 to allow for appropriate scale deciduous street trees and planning for green areas which are

663 orientated to the prevailing winds to enhance their fresh air distribution capacity, should be

664 implemented. Wide park areas are able to provide fresh air distribution for a whole

665 neighborhood, while small green surfaces in neighborhoods can help to enhance micro air

666 ventilation.

667 Open water surfaces/ water sensitive urban and landscape planning/design: To reduce the

668 temperature through evaporation and increase water availability for various uses in the city,

669 open water bodies as response to storm water management strategies should be created (Fig.5

670 and 6). The water bodies store heat, which is consumed through evaporation thereby reducing

671 local temperatures.

672 4.3.5 Integration of LD and architectural measures

673 For the reduction of heat load and the management of solar radiation at the development site

674 appropriate landscape and an architecture design concept should be applied. The aim is to

675 create a pleasant climate in particular at the pedestrian level and within buildings. The

676 interventions in this regard include:

677 Green roofs and façades: To reduce the room temperature and help to save on energy

678 required for cooling, green roofs green walls and climbing plants should be installed. Green

679 roofs have positive effects on air quality but the contribution of green roofs to cooler

680 temperatures at the pedestrian level is low. Green roofs can be used on a variety of roof types

681 and on any property size, although large area roofs are generally more cost-effective. Green

682 façades have similar benefits to green roofs. They can reach up to 2m into the street and

683 therefore help to provide cooling at the pedestrian level. Green façades are suitable for use

32
684 where space is limited. Green façades are created using climbing plants, either growing

685 directly on a wall or on specially designed supporting structures.

686 White reflective roofs and façades: To lower the indoor temperature and to reduce the cooling

687 energy consumption, white reflective roofing and façade materials are recommended.

688 The use of steel and some types of glass as façade construction materials should be limited,

689 because these materials warm up to a large extent when exposed to direct solar radiation.

690 High glare facades and finishing should be avoided, and natural materials like wood or

691 bamboo warm up significantly less.

692 Reflective and bright colored materials for public spaces/ Increased albedo: To reduce urban

693 heat islands, reflective and bright colored surface materials should be used for public open

694 spaces to increase solar reflection and reducing heat storage in urban areas by allowing the

695 heat to dissipate quicker. Even with the use of reflective materials, the amount of paved areas

696 should be minimized. Recommended are porous and permeable pavements, which can be

697 cooled by evaporation and allow for rainwater infiltration. Light colours reflect more solar

698 radiation than dark ones and hence surface temperature at the pedestrian level can be

699 decreased. There are several possibilities to enhance the reflective properties of paving

700 materials like for instance, the use of light-colored aggregates in asphalt and white cement in

701 concrete.

702 Shading: To limit the rise of air temperature during daytime and to provide an attractive and

703 pleasant ambience for people, shade for pedestrian areas should be provided. Shading

704 solutions include: (i) preservation or cultivation of a large tree canopy, (ii) shade provided by

705 buildings (iii) overhanging roofs, balconies and arcades, and (iv) shading elements in public

706 spaces.

33
707 4.3.6 Reducing anthropogenic heat

708 Heat generated by human activity such as that released by combustion of fuels from mobile

709 or stationary source should be reduced. The use of mass/ public transport reduces private

710 vehicle use which results in less waste heat from exhaust and also reduces the ground level

711 ozone effects.

712
713 Fig.6: Schematic diagram showing major adaptation strategies to UHI effects that could be incorporated in UP
714 and LD of Addis Ababa.

715 Table 2: Urban heat impact response strategy to be integrated in UP and LD at different spatial levels

No. Urban heat impact response strategy to be City Catchment, Site/ Building
integrated in city planning and LD level Sub-city and Project level
Neighborhood level
levels
1 Urban climate map and
2 Fresh air flow corridors
3 High ratio of vegetated areas
4 Reduction of ground temperature on site
Orientation to prevailing winds
Avoidance of wind blockers
Facilitating ventilation by different building
heights
Increase vegetation
Open water surfaces
5 Integration of LD and architectural measures
Green roofs/green façades
White/reflective roofs/ façades
White/reflective paving
Shading

34
 Preservation or cultivation of tree canopy
Shade by buildings
Overhanging roofs/ balconies/arcades
Shading elements in public space
6 Reducing Anthropogenic effects
716

717 5. Land use implication of CC adaptation strategies

718 The response strategies elaborated above involve appropriate UP and LD. Although UP and

719 LD can minimize adverse impacts of CC at the city level and can establish a climate-resilient

720 city, a key point of CC adaptation in Addis Ababa is that many actions require more land to

721 be left in open space, and/or a less dense built environment. Current approaches to flood

722 water management suggest more natural infiltration that require more space. More water to

723 manage often means more space needed to manage it. Similarly, adding (or not removing)

724 space-using greenery is an important step in preventing or treating urban heat island effects.

725 Buildings that are more moderate in height and placed to enable ventilation between

726 individual dwellings provide adaptation to higher temperatures, but tend to reduce density.

727 While there is little adaptation benefit from low density, sprawling development, it appears

728 that moderate density with significant fingers of green infrastructure running through the city

729 may be the most effective form. It is, therefore, very essential to balance space requirement of

730 adaptation options and impacts of CC during UP and LD in the city.

731 6. Conclusion

732 CC poses a serious threat to sustainable development of Addis Ababa placing it at risk. The

733 topography of the city makes it susceptible to CC impacts and vulnerability particularly with

734 respect to flooding. Mismanagement of the urban green on steep terrain in the northern part,

735 soil erosion and storm water runoff has become a serious problem affecting the mountainous

736 and riverine areas of the city. Consequently, urban dwellers living in these areas have been

35
737 severely affected. Improper road and drainage network systems and accompanied drainage

738 problems have also caused flooding of roads in the city. Furthermore, UP practices which are

739 not sensitive to CC impacts and vulnerabilities amplify the risk of flooding and also posing

740 additional vulnerability to UHI effect as a result of dense and climate insensitive construction

741 in the city center.

742 City authorities are thus increasingly facing the challenge of finding ways to include climate

743 change adaptation strategies into city development activities. With respect to current

744 practices, this study shows that the integration of UP and LD with CC adaptation is very

745 limited because of the lack of up-to-date regulatory and related operational planning

746 instruments and capacity gaps, which hindered urban planners and landscape designers to

747 integrate CC impacts and vulnerability in UP and design. It is, however, possible to apply a

748 series of strategies that mitigate the effects of CC through UP and LD. On the one hand, this

749 work highlights that there are many links between UP and CC, and UP in general are seen as

750 important tools for reduction of CC impacts. On the other hand, links between UP and CC

751 adaptation are weak. This relates to the lack of up-to-date planning policies and regulations,

752 which hinders comprehensive integration. Existing frameworks do not address climate-

753 related problems and vulnerabilities in urban areas. The evaluation and restructuring of

754 current UP policy and the regulatory framework is thus an urgent task. Modifications to these

755 instruments to take into consideration synergies between CC adaptation and UP are crucial

756 for adaptation planning and improved risk reduction.

757 This paper provides a preliminary assessment of CC impacts and vulnerability of urban

758 system in Addis Ababa and developed adaptation strategies that could be translated into UP

759 and LD. The study shows that CC resilient city can only be achieved if UP and LD take

760 adaptation measures into consideration and if adaptation becomes an inherent part of UP and

36
761 LD practices. To assist city authorities in their efforts to mainstream adaptation into UP

762 practice, improved knowledge with respect to policy, strategy, science and decision support

763 systems is crucial. Although it is impractical to fully halt CC impacts and vulnerability given

764 the city’s development challenges, with proper planning it is possible to adapt to the impacts

765 and reduce vulnerability through appropriate adaptation measures and integrating them in city

766 development. Therefore, the priorities for planners and urban managers should be to ensure

767 that the impacts of CC and the vulnerabilities of the urban systems are properly addressed

768 and integrated in city development endeavors. To that end, creative adaptation strategies are

769 the most promising opportunities for the management of the urban environment and this

770 needs to be enshrined in the planning process at all scales of urban development initiatives. In

771 this regard, integrated urban water management and mitigating UHI effects can serve as a

772 valuable spatial framework for integrating CC impacts in city development planning. CC

773 considerations should, therefore, be an established practice in UP as the measures for CC

774 adaptation can promote sustainable development.

775 Acknowledgements. The author would like to thank the Office of the Director of Research

776 of Addis Ababa University for financial support under the Thematic Research Project

777 entitled "Improving resource efficiency, environmental quality and sustainability of urban

778 areas in Ethiopia" (Grant No. TR/11/2013).

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