Precalculus 2: Polynomials and rational functions

Mathematics from high school to university

Hania Uscka-Wehlou

Polynomial division: theorem and proof

Theorem: If p(x) and d(x) are polynomials such that d(x) 6= 0 then there exist two polynomials
q(x) and r(x) such that
p(x) = q(x)d(x) + r(x)
and deg(r) < deg(d). The polynomials q(x) and r(x) are unique.

Proof: Let deg(p) = n and deg(d) = m, i.e.:

p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , an 6= 0

d(x) = bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · + b1 x + b0 , bm 6= 0

1. Existence of q and r:

If n < m then we simply take q = 0 and r = p.

If n > m, we prove the theorem with help of induction for n. We fix (any) m ∈ N and d(x)
with degree m, and let n ∈ N (where n > m) and p(x) with degree n vary.

d(x) = bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · + b1 x + b0 , bm 6= 0

Let’s pick some n > m. We suppose (induction assumption) that the thesis is true for all polyno-
mials p of degree less than n: for each polynomial p of degree less than n there exist q and r such
that p(x) = q(x)d(x) + r(x) and deg(r) < m. We know that for n < m the thesis is true, so we
have a guaranteed good induction start.

We have to show that, under this assumption, the thesis is also true for our chosen n. To prove
this, let’s consider any polynomial p of degree n:

p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , an 6= 0.

We must show that our thesis holds also for this polynomial. Define a new polynomial (of degree
n − 1):
an n−m
p1 (x) = p(x) − x · d(x) =
bm

an n−m
= an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 − x (bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · + b1 x + b0 ).
bm
The new polynomial has degree n − 1 at the most (the red parts cancel out, but the degree can
be lower than n − 1 in some cases). Because deg(p1 ) < n, we know that the induction thesis holds
for p1 : we get polynomials q1 and r1 s.t. p1 = q1 d + r1 and deg(r1 ) < deg(d). We have:
an n−m an n−m
p(x) = p1 (x) + x · d(x) = q1 (x)d(x) + r1 (x) + x · d(x) =
bm bm
an n−m
= d(x)(q1 (x) + x ) + r1 (x) = d(x)q(x) + r1 (x),
bm
which proves the existence of polynomials q (of degree n − m) and r (r = r1 ). The principle of
induction tells us now that the thesis is true for all natural n > m, which completes the proof of
existence.

Note: The proof shows actually *how* the division algorithm

works!
2. Uniqueness of q and r: Suppose that we have two different quotients and remainders for
some polynomials p and d:

p = q1 d + r1 , deg(r1 ) < deg(d)

p = q2 d + r2 , deg(r2 ) < deg(d).
Then we have

q1 d + r1 = q2 d + r2 ,
and thus:

(q1 − q2 )d = r2 − r1 (∗)
Now, suppose that q1 − q2 6= 0 (i.e., that we get two different quotients). Then deg(q1 − q2 ) > 0
(a non-zero polynomial has degree at least zero, when it is constant; possibly more) and:

deg[(q1 − q2 )d] = deg(q1 − q2 ) + deg(d) > deg(d) (∗∗)

(Why? See Video 34: the degree of the product is equal to the sum of the degrees.)

But, because deg(r1 ) < deg(d) and deg(r2 ) < deg(d) and (again, from Video 34): the degree of
the sum / difference is less than or equal to the max degree of the terms, we get

deg(r2 − r1 ) 6 max{deg(r1 ), deg(r2 )} < deg(d),

which contradicts (∗∗): the degrees of equal polynomials ((q1 − q2 )d and r2 − r1 ) must be equal.
This means that the assumption that q1 − q2 6= 0 was false, and (∗) gives us then r2 − r1 = 0, so
r1 = r2 and both representations (p = q1 d + r1 and p = q2 d + r2 ) are actually equal to each other,
which completes the proof of uniqueness.