3.00 Newton's Potential. Properties of Newton's Potential.

Potential Theory and Spherical Harmonics ( SG315) by Surv. K. F. A. Aleem Ph.
3.0 NEWTON’S POTENTIAL.
Lecture Notes
by
K. F. Aleem
Department of Surveying and Geoinformatics,
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University,
Bauchi
3.0 Newton’s Potential.

3.1 Properties of Newton’s Potential.
3.2 Potential of a Homogeneous Sphere.
3.3 Potential of Volume-Distributed Masses.
3.4 Logarithmic Potential.
3.5 Simple Layer Potential.
3.6 Double Layer Potential.
3.7 Non-stationary Potentials.
POTENTIAL
The Newtonian potential or Newton’s potential is an operator in vector calculus that

acts as the inverse to the negative Laplacian. it is best introduced as a body of results on
the properties of forces which are characterised by Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation. It
state that:
Two point masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance l attracts each other with a
force which is directly proportion to the product of their masses and inversely
proportion to the square of distance between them.
Mathematically,
(3 - 1)
(3–2)
Where:
l is the distance
k is the gravitational constant of 6.673 × 10−11kg-1m3s−2 (or N m2 kg−2), which has

the same value for all pairs of particles.
__________________________________________________________________________________
Lecture Note Contact: akfaleem@yahoo.com 1
Potential Theory and Spherical Harmonics ( SG315) by Surv. K. F. A. Aleem Ph.D
F is gravitational force. The force is directed along the line connecting the two points.
The attraction the bodies with masses m1 and m2 is the direction of P2 to P1 while m2
and m1 is the direction of P1 to P2
Masses m1 and m2 attracts each other in a completely symmetric way. One is the
attracting other is the attracted. If we set the attracted equal to unity. Then
(3–3)
3.1 Properties of Newtonial Potential.

The Newtonian potential. F denotes the support of μ—that is, the small closed set,
the complement of which has μ-measure 0. The Newtonian potential of μ then has
the following properties: harmonic, boundary, equilibrium and smoothness,
(1) u(x) is a C∞-function in the complement of F and Δu = 0 there,
(2) u(x) is positive and lower semi-continuous,
(3) u(x) is integrable over any sphere |x| < R, hence is infinite only on a set of
Lebesgue measure 0.
A set X of real numbers is said to have (Lebesgue) measure zero if there is for each
positive real ϵ a sequence (In: n < ∞) of intervals such that X is covered
(4) If u(x) is bounded on F by M, then u(x) ≤2n–2M for all x in Rn
These properties play an essential role in the study by means of boundary integral
equation techniques of boundary value problems for the equilibrium and
harmonic oscillation states, and in the construction of associated boundary element
methods.
The potential at a point is defined as the work done (against a specified force field)
to bring a unit mass from infinity to that point or required position. This is usually
used in dynamics. Potential is the inherent capacity of coming to being. The potential
related to gravity is called the gravitational potential.
Gravitational potential is defined as the work required to move a unit mass from
infinity to the given point.
. The potential of gravitation is a scalar function given as
(3–3)
Where: V is the potential . k is the gravitational constant and l is the distance.
The components X, Y, Z of gravitational force F is given by:

__________________________________________________________________________________
(3–4)
These can easily be verified by differentiating
(3–5)
In vector form, it is written as:

(3–6)
That is the force vector is the gradient vecor of the scalar function V.
The three components of vector F can be replaced by function V; especially when we

consider the attraction of the systems of point masses of solid bodies as in geodesy. It is
much easier to deal with potential than to deal with 3 components of forces. Then function V
is the sum of contributions of the respective particles.
Thus, if we have a system of several point masses m1, m2, . . . . .mn then the potential of the
systems is the sum of the individual contributions.
(3–7)
Potential of a Solid Body
Solid Body have volume and occupy space. The assumption here is that the points
are distributed continuously over a volume V with density:
( 3 –8 )
Where:
dV is the element of volume and dm is the element of mass. Then sum becomes an
integral as:
(3 –9 )
__________________________________________________________________________________
P(x,y,z)
z
dm(ξ,η,ζ)
Where:
l is the distance between the mass element dm and the attracted point P. Denoting
the coordinates of attracted point by (x, y, z) and that of the element of mass by
(ξ ,η, ζ). We see that l is again given by Equation (1-4) and we can write explicitly
( 3 – 11 )
Since the element of volume is expressed by dξ dη dζ
( 3 – 12 )
Note that the order of differentiation is interchanged and integration. Substituting Equation
(1-12) into the expression, the expression becomes
( 3 – 13 )
__________________________________________________________________________________
The potential is continuous throughout the whole space and vanish at 1/l . This can be
seen from the fact that for every point distances l, the body act approximately given by
equation (3-13).
Consequently, in celestial mechanics, the planets are usually considered as point masses.
Note that the potential V satisfies the Poisson’s equation.
( 3 – 14 )
Where:
( 3 – 15 )
Substituting the attracting mass and the density is zero
Then
( 3 – 16 )
This is Laplace equation. It is called Harmonic function
Potential of a Material Surface: We assumed that the attracting masses form a

layer or coating on a certain closed surface S, with thickness zero and density
where dm is the element of mass and dS is the element of surface. This is
fictitious but theoretically important. In exact correspond to the potential of a body,

the potential of a material surface is given as :
( 3 – 17 )
Where l is the distance between the attracted point and the surface element
dS
z
P
__________________________________________________________________________________
y
Potential of a Dipole OR Double Layer Potential: we imagine a dipole consisting

of 2 equal point masses of opposite signs positive and negative separated by small
distance. Such case is fictitious because there are no negative masses but the
notion is nevertheless mathematically useful.
p
l1
+m
L2
-m
The potential of +ve mass is and that of –ve mass ( 3 – 18 )
The Total potential of dipole=

( 3 – 19 )
In magnetism and battery cells there are real dipole
__________________________________________________________________________________

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Potential Theory and Spherical Harmonics ( SG315) by Surv. K. F. A. Aleem Ph.

3.0 NEWTON’S POTENTIAL.

3.0 Newton’s Potential.

The Newtonian potential or Newton’s potential is an operator in vector calculus that

k is the gravitational constant of 6.673 × 10−11kg-1m3s−2 (or N m2 kg−2), which has

3.1 Properties of Newtonial Potential.

(1) u(x) is a C∞-function in the complement of F and Δu = 0 there,

(2) u(x) is positive and lower semi-continuous,

(4) If u(x) is bounded on F by M, then u(x) ≤2n–2M for all x in Rn

. The potential of gravitation is a scalar function given as

Where: V is the potential . k is the gravitational constant and l is the distance.

The components X, Y, Z of gravitational force F is given by:

These can easily be verified by differentiating

In vector form, it is written as:

The three components of vector F can be replaced by function V; especially when we

Potential of a Solid Body

Since the element of volume is expressed by dξ dη dζ

Substituting the attracting mass and the density is zero

This is Laplace equation. It is called Harmonic function

Potential of a Material Surface: We assumed that the attracting masses form a

where dm is the element of mass and dS is the element of surface. This is

fictitious but theoretically important. In exact correspond to the potential of a body,

Potential of a Dipole OR Double Layer Potential: we imagine a dipole consisting

The potential of +ve mass is and that of –ve mass ( 3 – 18 )

The Total potential of dipole=

In magnetism and battery cells there are real dipole

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