yee Bev AIR © . UnINER ROUNLS S Suayeial 6. Te cHNI QUES . MINING AND ¢* 4 Mining embodios the earth sciences and utilizes principles of virtually every engineering and sciences geared ‘towards exploiting the earth of tts natural resources | the mineral constituents in particular. The process, of obtaining the useful ‘minerals from the earth's crust is called mining and includes, broadly, speaking, both underground exeavations and surface workings. The actual mining or exploitation of the minerals 15 preceeded by sone sequential cbperation called the elements of mining. Coupled with the purely setentifie processes in mining are the safety measures necessiated vy the inevitable hazards to human life, Both underground and sut'race mining, demand the application of geological and engineering skilis to make a mine profitable. Surface mining 1s aki to quarrying and consists of extractirig useful mineral deposits from the ground by removing eed Upwenteds top layer deposits broadly classified as over- With the introduction of mechanical excavators, the burden. process has becone highly méCnanised. Bedded deposits such as coal-and iron ore are developed extensively in many pattsi:’ of the world today, and it is quitecommon to consider the! removal of say 15m ‘of overburden to win deposits of coal or {ron ore: as thin as 1.5m. Power shovels and dragline gecavators are the principal machines enployed, and thes® abe sufficiently mobile to enable them move from place’ to place with the use of a small ldbour force.” Surface mining °° \ a categorised in different terms of strip-mining or ~ Powered by (9 CamScannerIn open-pit . Calract mining, @ method often used to oun metale Such aS copper Ane Trou @ MLL AS YL Langer than the aren of the “ePe91t to ensure the sLaDitity of the Slopes. The slopes are cut BY steps down to a point were it becomes Impractteable to go deeper, . Another kind of surface mintngyle catiea qvarrytng. It usually Anvolves extracting marble, Limestone’ and other high-quarity ornamental Stone used for or_nanental and vuttding purpo ses. The stone is SOY fron a pit in large blocks. ‘some quabries use blasting to Fracture the stone from surrounding rock. tn surface mining Dredges drag riverbeds and ocean floor Placer deposit. Loose minerals Special machines called dredges are used called dredging. sremoving that havotbeen carried to an area by glaciers, wind, or water are called placer deposits. Strip mining, open pit mining, quirrying, and dredging are some of the main surface mining methods, used today. though Surface mining 1s effective in gathering mineral resources, it. 4 can scar the earth's surface. Underground, mining consists of sinking shafts or driving inclined adits to reach the desired deposit, and thereatter , : expanding the workings as far as it ‘ls economically possible ve support the soo, naintain an eir supply, oF keep out the “Haege volunes of water often encounterot underground. one : aif 7 Une “depowlt has been reached by shaft or adit, some geometric fissures, Yarious types of stoping are used. Stoping is the process of ‘ f€aking:open the deposit by drilling and blasting ‘ ng space, called Gr driaVing!and redoving 1% to form a working 9p the "stopel. dl r Powered by (9 CamScanner- § 2 “ Underhand stoping is the method of drilling and blasting downwards into a deposit pnd, transferring 1t into the haulage over hand* system of the mine. Overhead stoping involves attacking the Ore-body at a low level and undercutting it so that in a loosened condition it falls easily down to loading points. This method is favoured where it is possible to keep apart the Walls of the vein or deposit in the stope without too much difficulty. © Moreover, {t {5 usual for this, and all other types of stoping, to develop an interconmunicating set of workings, which makes for easy ventilation and havlage of ore from the mine. * . Nowadays it is rare to find a large mine which does not combine all the above methods of workings because problems of ‘roof control; ventilation and ease of haulage vary from place to place within the mine witht changes in geological formation or circumstances. This is especially true in the workings of metaliirerous deposits, which are commonly concentrated along fissures ané other geological structures and so have a variable: and often fortuitous configuration. Beds of oré which conform with the surrounding strata offer quite different Possibilities. Such deposits often extend over large areas «1 without great changes in quality or geological structure. Thus, underground network can be developed, and long continous working faces formed, along with variSus styles of removal of deposit can be employed. In the main, these take the form of Jonggalleries supported by pillars qf unworkeddeposit, and the Haulage. ‘Materials from a deposit is usually taken to theshaft on conveyor ‘belts or|on, powered vehicles. There, the material ts “tidisted to:'the' surface.. Sometimes railway cars carry it to the Powered by (9 CamScannerack are Tn many underground mines, piitard of coal or Left atanding to keep a tunnel from collapas ne, Buabi ity Lilliny ou by THM, sorta and tunnels with waate Js sometimes achte hia method also allown for diopenal of wanto materials. rocks Underground mining Lachniques have become complex tn eof the tasks recent ‘years. Machines ave performing 0 nunbe ice done manually. Hany coal mineay For example, use continous ining agchines that cut cond from the Lunnel walls and otscharge Lu into @ shuttie car for transport from the mings all in one ' Such . gperation. Seu machings eltainate the, need for blasting the al from the surrounding rocks, 00 THIN inl one coat wining bechnique, called longwall wining relies => nous cutting machine that is brought into an excavated on an enor area y beneath the aurfnce, The, machine moves along & face, i or wall of cont, hearing Large amounts in a single pass. i top ofthe machine support the roof along Hydraulic Jacks on ; sine working face, Keeping the rock ove from caving in on the ‘ + operators. the machine moves forward, the roof above the! 4 ne any coblapse behind It. Longvall mining 19 & RASHY i productive form of underground ntntnes: Where this method is + practical, a greater percentage of coal often can be removed a + chan with other methods. ii deeenvndoreround ot one surfaces waning 12 dangero0s, } yenttiauion ts a fiajor problem in underground mg and hazardous. s may be in more danger from ‘sines. If fire occurs, worker: asphyxSation by carbon monoxide, than from the flames. Long ! ' exposure to mining dust Gancaise respiratory diseases such as j : las vance 1209. ven vith vetter machinery and tougher safety a miner works tn one of the wor. “standards, d's most hazardous “} Sccupations- i fee Powered by (9 CamScannerSURVEY NETWORK. 2. Desiar oF wwe Powered by (9 CamScanner6 cat Lino a tn cadeutabod (ee sanmorrnttone eb 1 vo An wird tren 0 re aur vw when bo te Obes tc ungva 0 A orring, wb Me tent backotaly i" cobhor ws Uo Heel foranlent of to trnvere fh waiting, 1 ten aml rent tt AL of tn se en cated fre one vor tO veo tne ane trtalMgtos of im baer in bat wot wh te row inte won 0a iret mvt doparvaren ae anh Ue fue Hint ton of 8 rat rn thon compl f as the weanued Laoanha od to han ante enon ten te Ula oun soe opt nat ne oF shows A ue nny chonnty wat Hab sie Hino about were caeorasoans nt seas on ran thane total inn on op tne ne Vine cea from untae vue accuracy, oF wwe errant SU vote tt tr provides 0 ote 1 ash ations gripe connor alt iymmoor eatcutaned on oxerona intn boing taken tron, uve tourton ohuained fa 1 ure obanrat sony concn fo te pagan of ue cena sip appton, Ue mitre ‘ tn Vie AN tn cori of 8 nvbor In onalaet: te correctson ean MH tfbchad om folios onnorvoisin +000" ot Frem the sure at be Hv-O%, " 1-00 we Age rey circle boneing (wen) of ny teartog, of Hine sini 8 0 sn annus arte eects orotogtacnior 140" 61 fang an entealatd fom eer ‘ ee on phe = 1e6 soning, 81 10 188g yy! i wit = 1 asftorvnce te tneretor® 13 setng, ott ts grewoer yn tp ear, of ene 1108 seven, wwe aartorance of Pant Uo ron vie wswatntunote circle bar 7 variey of te Line AY san (8%, form, tan eoeceeh bearing. of pitarcn | Ho ortanting an usinrrroond mace aise ordinary ere Sn ne nurenentn can gold es wccuracy 0 Une orton degen the dngrew ayo Ue ine Feo one si ot peebtaben alt ene (ps nd 9 on the care wh heh Simatic setae f i contd acc Powered by (9 CamScannerthe traversing underground ts carried outs HotwiUiaLanding Unio) Ube method as a rule gives more accurate reaul Linn othorn, ofeapl perkates An the case where the distance between Lhe sha bat te short ‘and Uhe under ground traverse consists of a number of yery short arate, exicoorduad i en the dtstance botunen the mas to short, SHURE SEGA, care shouldbe taken in megsurenent at the surface consary for the locaton of the relative positions of the Lo wiroa, Assuming Unt Une distance nr Sem tn the deter between the two shat a Ls only 150m) an or mination ' of the posttion.of one of tin wires, If the direction of Ulta e#rror be i perpendicular to the ine Jolntng Ue to wire, WiLl cause an ervor tn Ue bearing of this Mne of 69" : if there 4a a trinngwtation yotnt quite near to each shoft there should bd no great difficulty in fixing the relative positena of the wires more accurately than this'and tas otain the b ring of the Line with prectaton. uitey conventent2y placed triangulation, A ——-4 \ \ - ” / < stations the nepsurencnts to be mde at ench atatton wiLl probably only consist -of the measurement of one angle in order te obtain the direction of the station ton wire in one shatt and the careful measurement of this Line. Referring to the figure above, E and F art? conver:tent: triangulation stations From which the neceasary mensuireent con ba made, X and ¥ being the wires hanging in the shat ts tho objervitton at station F wil conaktt, 7 : of the measurement of the angle E F ¥ and of the length FY; those at station E-of tho measurement of tne angle FFX and of the Length EX, Wen the shafts are not situated near triangulation points tL Will be necessary to run traverse from suitable trLonguiatson atations to each wire. Under cortain conditions such traverses tay be Aengttyfy and tha accumulative: Powered by (9 CamScannererror of each may te of ‘errors in the Locations o too inaccurate Mreaul'. for tee weal wires, This difficulty may oe oxere of triangles whose bases are c accompanying figure. A, 2,20 AIX t teLangulation st 1, 2) 3and 4, the post principle {—ngbizon by to aban cd biiiasaunanseessie nse reoults are te Lack of ve projection in the Goon and deeper Powered by (9 CamScanneraffect a hanging wire, so that the point which re Presents the eentre of its swing at depth does not Lie directly under its TS Point'of suspension at surface. . When the presence of these air current: be ‘ S As felt, the orientation should bé carcted out in such a manner -that, there is a réasonable chance wf that those factors which cause. lack of 7 - erticality will cancel one another. This can best be done by hanging : several wires so that lines ‘in different Grithwed ic ard BUWNEREL! sean or tne results obtained fos the aicrerent Lisee taken positions in the shaft are obtained, as the final results. Based Best on the principle stated above, the positility of transferring a bearing through a single shaft can be done by the following methods:~ 1, Use of, the Weisbach triangle ‘ ‘ ' tin 5 ; : 2. The weiss method . : 3. The alignment method ° 4, Roberts method The" use of ‘triangle in which the angles are calculated from the thee x measured sides. 6. The applicationn of the threepoint problem. 22,; SETICAL METHODS OF TRANSFERRING 4 BEARING Since shaft* plumbing with wires demands much elaborate measurement, and with only a limited precision, many optical methods have been developed with sone success. If two shafts are available, an optical plummet may be applied instead of single wire, ® This instrument consists usually of a vertical telescope, which. can be.rotated ' about the vertical axis, and which is set vertical by means of sensitive levels. The telescope of this instrument “has a magnification of 40 and levels with 20"per division. The precision obtained is 1.5¢m on a depth of 500 metres. The , observations have’ to be carried out in two positions of the telescope differing Powered by (9 CamScannerby 180° a Te As recommended (hat Lnre® measurements be Laken; equally divided over 360%» The advantage of an optical shaft. plumbing 1s that the ir measurements are independent of bur currents in the shaft. & disadvantage ts that the sighting distance can be Limited in the shart because of the atmospheric conditions. This tustrunent can be successfully used for the direct transfer of co-ordinates, and the transfer of a bearing when tvo shafts are available. . 4n optical plane is realised by two intersecting Lines by means of the al{gnment method through a shaft. If this plane is intersected by two parallel planes one at iw sntice an one utererovi” to pareel inestfiained, tho Lamps 4] and 42 are placed underground st a maxinum distance fron ove anothers»! within the perimeter of the shaft and at exactly the sone height. Half way up 9 the shaft approximately in the ceatre a horizontal zone plate Bis mousted. At thé surface two points cl and C2 are se,t collined? ‘with intersecting lines Al Band 42 B respectively: The points C1 and C2 are also set exactly horizantal. This is shown in the following figure.” The Lines 41 42 underground and Cl C2 at Lie surface are now parallel. These Lines are usually short (say not more than 4 to § matres ) Powered by (9 CamScannerne {he advantagen of this mathod 41 comparison with the wiree are that the points chy be set on aligamont with a precision of O.tem (atandard deviation) and that the points are Fixed, thus rackiitating the observations with the theodelite, The connection with the control survey could be entabliahed by means of Wetabach tringle, Te 415 more precise however to une the alignment wothod again, The polnts A and C1 are replaced by a vertical strate SE Gtaohragn, prectsoly controd te eetr of whlch a Janp 42 Placed, The potnta A2 and C2 are replaced by m precisely centred étaphrage consisting of a double Sri Subsequently, the points 11 and 12 are sect collinear. In this way the short lines A1 42 and C1 C2 ear be extrapolated to a Length of 3.5m approximately'with an extremely high preciaio’. ‘The connection with the control survey can then be made with oimple angular observations at TI and 72, , The apparatus consists of thw folleving part: the snstrutents aot at ne’ points 41 and 42 consists of a fortzortal table movable in a direction at right angles to thé Line a1 A2 by meang’of micrometer screw, Beneath this table a Lamp cay be mounted fn a holder which can be rotated about a vertical axis. Ov ton ‘of the dnp ‘tolders vertical dtaphragns are mounted precisely centred, ore with a single, and one with a double slit. These @aphragas have 9 height of approximately ‘cm the width of the slits can be altered if necessary. During the aligament tn the dircetion &C the diaphragms can be Folded down against the table. : Powered by (9 CamScanner_ The method of observation is as follows: The zove plate at B as shown in-above figure Js made of brass, and consists set of ofjconcentric rings of radié 5,7,9,11,13....mn. It is mounted on a sheet 25 x 25cm fia order traveidstray luykt, The instruerts to be set up at C1 and C2 are similar to those used underground. For easy alignzent to the, points 72 however, they are provided with a double sliding microneter in directions at right angles. the lanp holders are replaced by maguifying glasses with a nagaification of 1.5, and provided with a circular index. 01 stop ofthe holders the sane slit shaped Sfephregns sre placeds The points 41 and 82 are placed 0 as to make the distance as lowg as possible, the distances 4B and BC approximately equal and to keep the paths. of light 41.Cl and 42 C2 at least 0.5m away from fixtures having another than the normal temperature of dir in the. shaft. The points 1, Band Cl and 42, B and C2 are set collinear booking the corres~ ponding readings at the micrometer screws. The final setting is determined by the mean of these readings. The,slit shaped diaphragms are now set vertical’ and the Lines: 42 41 T1 and C1 C2 T2 are established. Subsequently the angles at TI and 12 are observed. The place of these - points is indicated by the relationship ay a2 - cree . u «271, Gn, This procedure 1a repeated after rotation of the holders sa fy Ay oC A through 180° spout the vertical axis in order to eliminate centering errors in the apparatus. The mean of these two measurenents is considered as one observation of the transfer of the bearing. The second observation is someuhat different in that’ the point 41 or AB is displaced about an arbitrary difstance (see figure). With the aid of the micrometer screw the pélnts 42 and Al are collinear with A1'T.and 4 2'T respectively. Then the alignment is carried out of ‘the points A1, Band Cf and 42 B and C34 Having set the micrometers at the mean of the readings; ‘theline C1 c2 can be produced to T2 as a consequence of the selection ofthe poke Powered by (9 CamScannerso ft after the observations of the angles at Tl and T2 the holders are rotated egnin, and the measurement repeated. . The precision of this aligrmont method 14 largely. determined by the | precision of the aligment of the lines 41 B C1 and 42 B G2 which has 1 standard deviation of 0.1en independent of the depth of the shart. ‘The standard deviation of the alignment in the direction. AT and CT Sat 1 being-larger than 0.5rm, the standard deviation of a single observation may then ‘be estindted by’ Sz 2x07 240.25 j (ay aay? iar = th id : Powered by (9 CamScanner~ seme addition to this the atendard deviation of the age observations at the points TI and T2 should be taken into account ay well as the precision of centering, and on allowance made for the precision of tne apparatus, which differs 1 every, case and 1s difficult to eatinate. Powered by (9 CamScannerZ . We £3 Mine erventation by guevscepee, metho / Rebioble at ins Arde vwcin ene ie rly elttiamuntd vin searpeg wvork ba observatio oe Sats from existing pefarcire ozenudits of making © * Qs on. f Ub ston ofthe shee, Howtos Un mean Sctaodions Stich do Un Uneldigeound muint § TAS On hart Ab aren 49 PA pbaldy ute cath wikle Leite, these mmeltusoll aurptel nor be posse The gyres cope, em HO eto, Jrtondy petvrals ths, ladarmiavediiins of relvobte OPLMMEhS Winds hese ecluten concitort, + W Syrascape 6 uawally atlinches tsa top of a Hhandedt, Insiet He FEO P Aa @ Supreme to Suapapeltd om a Hire Lape semlad a Paves bof Me uppa, ond of tla Aubulon housing athe hip, A china the cross seebiowal View of Hu, Byrom Pas Uo ofourt vn Figure 23. Zhe, Maung mae oscllates uch the geprescopts Thin mork as comorted (0 Ness coded wrhick to verted Herough the apefinee,, The. oop ie ethachut Ate vnsbrwmenk a5 euch of to fested Ankh sespick he | * the Miclad of the Haodelite, \ In prac co, tha theodolile tlescope ca seb ub roughly pouting lowants Le: Heth bpminaras ef priser Ormpats or tubular compass (taking Cah Account dackimckion ofthe Compass niidte) va suspension tore ight Powered by (9 CamScanner8 ‘5 a /'t Sproconepec Lath fit tom ty Hand bl uote tec fe Fee Lf pos Ebns The FyrOretoy do now Harnad. en ancl allroed /: Bove Aa optiating Spats Ns Ho Sptrnsd osc oles ehouf you te. ty? wd: mame Com bo, ob sorte? thiougd ke, ee Meong tevots Le Prrcrations corcbalavel wv ta epitee sete. Tus, be the mud. posctlon of Ho osc telus t,esla- - itecopet line of sgt a the sfotion ca onbated be’ Conh Ht pueore of all observations 1a th dlemue Y Nerds the ware Bint pasta ; ON mmobhod of Aung td dood inthe Tr ming Rains Mette te Ch observer follows the ascitlabiou of the moving mark parc | hes te Keep ot ob the onhe Of the Ve trnelou by havrrag EE her vo Powkol eee Torgent serous Mhen A therrnimeg pot ia reaehed, (Be menung mark sll emagisr stationary on He \shapad marks daadktee corespoavelerig hoizowlel anele readuirg hag ty he © Hbrormed qevily: Th ohservev thon follows the manemint of the f Puoyung moork folowing HOV. crcl ull fee oppeste Cirnung Pot io reached. Thi Korizentul cLrale to Agu, Mead ancl re— tordid, the tate suceessuse tun ning Points are. r, 5 andy, He yeaah This apprecumentt Vilue do beau as Selle Means IP. Ha readings. Gre ynurt thee Taser, mation 04 the Schulte bans of renee constpative : elas to Cok The aude tha neacluivg fav Teat Neth The acne Oh Oe ferinet mark 1 thew oblate. The AZo a | reference Lanta osbabbiohgd by Suybdbineg om a sefertwee mide lente beth tae Lift daset face rept comebtivics anct taking the Intern of bork readings. OM cathe mean enele ‘ * Wro 13 M= fast shown Ue Faget 2.3.2, cs Tre Mottin True Aol “a Lind lednas Ered Neg 5 Figuaeds 3-2. Azam Powered by (9 CamScanner& /- WP, bawener, the ivecltin ofthe Wino of Stght of reatolices pe t [a thoodolile ato sr on tle’ gymatricol Aue of the osellatory reir ona coffee bay anal Hla czinnule 0 He, Us Haan A> M-NeE Be shiv, ba Fagaent 23/2* Thus proceduere mei ake 20 te dominaites hat ' Yule on oxime untl a standard demration of 20! The uithrumadt: : 1B epponsait amd com be Watt profitably oly om Lange prrfec / The other mothad of eelemmining azdnudleusiug the gyro * Ha Transit MeHod. 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