Unit 8-Functionsyo, Part II

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DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS Matemáticas I
Unit 8: Functions (part II)

The concept of limit of a function is a basic concept in calculus. Limits are a mathematical
tool which is used to define the 'limiting value' of a function i.e. the value a function seems to
approach when its argument (x) approaches a particular value. Although, the argument of the
function can be taken to approach any value, limits are helpful in cases where the argument
approaches a value where the function is not defined or becomes exceedingly large.
1. Limit of a function at a point
Sometimes you can't work something out directly ... but you can see what it should be as you
get closer and closer. Let's use this function as an example:
x 2− 1
f (x )=
x− 1
And let's work it out for x= 1 :
1 2− 1 0
f (1 )= =
1− 1 0
0 0
Now 0 is a difficulty! We don't really know the value of 0 (in fact, it is not a real number),
so we need another way of answering this. So instead of trying to work it out for x= 1 let's
try approaching it closer and closer:
2
x −1
x
x− 1
0.5 1.50000
0.9 1.90000
0.99 1.99000
0.999 1.99900
0.9999 1.99990
0.99999 1.99999
... ...
x 2− 1
Now we can see that as x gets close to 1, then f ( x )
=
x− 1 gets close to 2.
We are now faced with an interesting situation:
 When x= 1 we don't know the answer (it is indeterminate)
 But we can see that it is going to be 2
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We want to give the answer "2" but we can't, so instead mathematicians say exactly what is
going on by using the special word "limit"
x 2− 1
The limit of f (x )= x− 1 as x approaches 1 is 2
x 2− 1
lim =2
And it is written in symbols as: x →1 x− 1
So it is a special way of saying, "ignoring what happens when you get there, but as you get
closer and closer the answer gets closer and closer to 2"
As a graph it looks like this:
So, in truth, you cannot say what the value at x= 1 is.
But you can say that as you approach 1, the limit is 2.
2. Lateral limits
Doing this limit in the way we have done it is like running up a hill and then finding the path is
magically "not there"... but if you only check one side, who knows what happens from the
other side? So you need to test it from both directions to be sure where it "should be"! So,
let's try from the other side:
2
x −1
x
x− 1
1.5 2.50000
1.1 2.10000
1.01 2.01000
1.001 2.00100
1.0001 2.00010
1.00001 2.00001
... ...
Also heading for 2, so that's OK.
What if we have a function f (x ) with a

"break" in it like this:
In this case, you can't say what the limit at

x= 2 is, because there are two competing
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answers: 4 from the left, and 7 from the right.
But you can use the special "-" or "+" signs to define one sided limits:
lim f (x )= 4
−
 the left-hand limit (-) is 4: x →2
lim f (x )= 7
+
 the right-hand limit (+) is 7: x →2
And the ordinary limit "does not exist".
Anyway, limits can be used even if you know the value when you get there. Nobody said they
x 10
lim = 5 =5
are only for difficult functions. For example: x→10 2 . We know perfectly well that 2 ,
but limits can still be used.
3. Evaluating limits at a point
"Evaluating" means to find the value of. In the example above we said the limit was 2
because it looked like it was going to be. But that is not really good enough. In fact there are
many ways to get an accurate answer. Let's look at some:
Just put the value in
The first thing to try is just putting the value of the x in, and see if it works (in other words,
substitution). Let's try some examples:
Example Substitute Value Works?
x 2− 1 f (1 )=
1− 1 0
=
lim f (x )= lim NO
x →1 x →1 x− 1 1− 1 0
x 10
lim f (x )= lim f (10 )= =5 YES
x →10 x →10 2 2
It didn't work with the first one (we knew that!), but the second example gave us a quick and
0
easy answer. When we get 0 , we say we have an indeterminate form, and we need to do
something else to get the answer.
Factors
You can try factoring.
x 2− 1
lim f (x )= lim
Example 1 x →1 x →1 x− 1
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Solution
By factoring the numerator, we get:
x2− 1 (x +1)( x− 1)
lim = lim = lim ( x+1)
x →1 x− 1 x →1 x− 1 x →1
Now we can just substitute x= 1 to get the limit:
lim ( x+1)= 1+1= 2

x →1
Conjugate
If it's a fraction, then multiplying top and bottom by a conjugate might help. We use this
method specially when we have radicals in the function.
2− √ x
lim
Example 2 x→4 4− x
Solution
0
Evaluating this at x= 4 gives 0 , which is an indeterminate form. In this case, neither
the numerator nor the denominator can be factorized.
So, let's try some rearranging:
2− √ x 2+ √x
Multiply top and bottom by the conjugate of the top: ·
4− x 2+ √ x
2 2 − (√
2
2 2 x)
Simplify top using (a+b )· (a− b )=a − b :
(4− x )(2+ √ x)
4− x
Simplify top further: (4− x )(2+ √x)
1
Eliminate 4− x from top and bottom:
2+ √x
So, now we have:
1 1 1
lim = =
x→4 2+ √x 2+ √4 4
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Example 1 Find the limit of the function f (x )= x− 3 as x approaches 3.
Solution
1 1
= =∞
lim
If we substitute x= 3 , we have x →3 x− 3 0 . We have to do the lateral limits in
order to know if the result is positive or negative infinity.
1 1 1 1
lim = − =−∞ lim = + =+∞
− x− 3 0 + x− 3 0
x →3 and x →3
Vertical asymptotes
Note that when x gets closer to

3, then the points on the graph
get closer to the (dashed)
vertical line x= 3 . Such a line is
called a vertical asymptote.
For a given function f (x ) , there are four cases, in which vertical asymptotes can present
themselves:
lim f ( x)= − ∞ lim f ( x)= − ∞

(i) x →a + ; x →a -
lim f ( x)= − ∞ lim f ( x)= +∞

(ii) x →a + ; x →a -
lim f ( x)= +∞ lim f ( x)= − ∞

(iii) x →a + ; x →a -
lim f ( x)= +∞ lim f ( x)= +∞

(iv) x →a + ; x →a -
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3.1. Limit of a rational funtions P(x) / Q(x) at a point c
a) If Q(c)≠0, then
b) If P(c)≠0 and Q(c)=0, then Study the lateral limits when x→c
c) If P(c)=0 and Q(c)=0, then P(x)= (x-c) P1(x), Q(x)= (x-c) Q1(x). Therefore,
4. Limits and infinity
One of the mysteries of Mathematics seems to be the concept of "infinity", usually denoted by
the symbol ∞. So what is ∞? It is simply a symbol that represents an increasing sequence of
numbers, if we are talking about +∞, or a decreasing sequence, in we refer to -∞.
When the variable is f (x ) , it can become positively or negatively infinite when x approaches
some value c. We will write
lim f (x )=+∞ lim f (x )= − ∞

x →c or x →c
So when do we have to deal with +∞ or -∞ when working with limits? Easy: whenever you
take the inverse of “small” numbers, you generate “large” numbers and vice-versa, i.e., as x
1
gets smaller (closer and closer to 0), x tends towards ∞. Mathematically we can write this
1
=∞
as: 0 .
CAUTION! Do not treat ∞ as ordinary numbers. These symbols do not obey the usual rules of
arithmetic, for instance, ∞+1= ∞ , ∞− 1= ∞ , 2 · ∞= ∞ , etc.
4.1. Properties of Limits when x tends to infinity:
If lim f(x)=a and lim g(x)= b, then we have:
1. lim [ f(x) + g(x) ] = lim f(x) + lim g(x)= a+b : The limit of the sum of two functions
is the sum of their limits.
2. lim [ f(x) - g(x) ] = lim f(x) - lim g(x)= a-b : The limit of the difference of two
functions is the difference of their limits.
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3. lim [ f(x) * g(x) ] = lim f(x) * lim g(x)= a*b : The limit of the product of two functions
is the product of their limits.
4. lim [ f(x) / g(x) ] = lim f(x) / lim g(x)= a/b; if lim g(x) is not equal to zero. The limit
of the quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits if the limit in the
denominator is not equal to 0.
5. lim nth root [ f(x) ] = nth root [ lim f(x) ]= nth root (a).
If n is even and f(x)>0, lim f(x) has to be positive. The limit of the nth root of a
function is the nth root of the limit of the function, if the nth root of the limit is a real
number.
4.2. Infinite Limits. Definitions.
1) POWERS:
2) EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS: ;
3) LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS: ;
4.3. Order of Infinity.
i) If you have two powers of x, the one which has the greatest exponent also has the infinity
with superior order.
ii) If you have two exponential functions and the bases are more than 1, the one which has
the greater base also has the superior order.
iii) Any exponential function with base more than 1 has a infinity with superior order than any
power.
iv) The powers of x have infinity with superior order than logarithmic functions.
v) Two polynomials with the same grade or two exponential functions with the same base
have infinities with the same order.
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4.4. Operations with infinite expressions.
ADDITIONS PRODUCTS
(+∞) + L = (+∞) (+∞) (+∞)=(+∞)
(+∞) + (+∞) = (+∞) (+∞) (─∞)=(─∞)
(─∞) + (─∞) = (─∞)

If L> 0
─(─∞)= (+∞)
If L< 0
QUOTIENTS POWERS
L / (±∞)= (0)
L / (0)= (±∞)
(±∞) / (0) = (±∞)

If L>0
(0) / (±∞)= (0)
If L< 0
If L≠ 0
If L> 1
If 0<L<1
4.5. Indeterminate forms

In calculus and other branches of mathematical analysis, an indeterminate form is an
algebraic expression obtained in the context of limits. Limits involving algebraic operations
are often performed by replacing subexpressions by their limits; if the expression obtained
after this substitution does not give enough information to determine the original limit, it is
known as an indeterminate form. The indeterminate forms include 00, 0/0, 1∞, ∞ − ∞, ∞/∞,
0 × ∞, and ∞0.
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4.6.Limits at infinity for polynomials

Let’s start off with a pair of examples which will lead us to a nice idea that we’ll use on a
regular basis about limits at infinity for polynomials.
lim (2 x 4− x 2 − 8 x )
Example 1 Evaluate x →+∞
Solution
Our first thought here is probably to just “plug” infinity into the polynomial and “evaluate”
each term to determine the value of the limit. So, let’s see what we get if we do that. As
we know, x approaches infinity, then x to a power can only get larger and the coefficient
on each term (the first and third) will only make the term even larger. So, if we look at
what each term is doing in the limit we get the following,
lim (2 x 4− x 2 − 8 x )= ∞− ∞− ∞
x →+∞
Now, we’ve got a small problem to deal with. We are probably tempted to say that the
answer is zero (because we have an infinity minus an infinity) or maybe − ∞ (because
we’re subtracting two infinities off of one infinity). However, in both cases we’d be
wrong. This is one of those indeterminate forms that we first started seeing in a
previous section.
So, we need a way to get around this problem. What we’ll do here is factor the largest
power of x out of the whole polynomial as follows,
1 8
x →+∞ (
lim x 4 2− −
x2 x3 )
Now for each of the terms we have,
1 8
lim x 4 =+ ∞
x →+∞
lim 2−
x →+∞ ( −
x2 x3 )
= 2− 0− 0= 2
Therefore the value of the limit will be,
lim (2 x 4− x 2 − 8 x )=+ ∞· 2 =+∞

x →+∞
Example 2 Evaluate
lim
t→− ∞
(13 t +2 t − t +8).
5 3 2
Solution
It is a polynomial, the same that in the previous example, so all we need to do is factor
out the largest power of t to get the following,
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lim t 5
t→− ∞ (13 + t2 − t1 + t8 )
2 3 5
Now all we need to do is take the limit of the two terms. In the first don’t forget that since
we’re going out towards − ∞ and we’re raising t to the 5th power that the limit will be
negative (negative number raised to an odd power is still negative). Therefore the value
of the limit is,
lim
t→− ∞
(13 t +2t − t +8)= − ∞ · 13 = − ∞
5 3 2
4.7. Limits of rational functions P(x) / Q(x) at a point infinity
i) If degree of P > degree of Q (m>n), then (according to sign of a/b)
ii) If degree of P < degree of Q (m<n), then
iii) If degree of P = degree of Q (m=n), then
2 x4− x 2− 8 x 2 x 4− x 2− 8 x
lim lim
Example 3 Evaluate x →+∞ − 5 x +7 and x →− ∞ − 5 x +7
4 4
.
Solution
First, the only difference between these two is that one is going to positive infinity and
the other is going to negative infinity. Sometimes this small difference will affect the
value of the limit and at other times it won’t.
Let’s start with the first limit and as with our first set of examples it might be tempting to
just “plug” in the infinity. Since both the numerator and denominator are polynomials we
can use the above fact to determine the behaviour of each. Doing this gives,
2 x 4 − x 2 − 8 x +∞
lim = −∞
x →+∞ − 5 x 4 +7
This is yet another indeterminate form. In this case we might be tempted to say that the
limit is infinity (because of the infinity in the numerator), zero (because of the infinity in
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the denominator) or -1 (because something divided by itself is one). There are three
separate arithmetic “rules” at work here and without work there is no way to know which
“rule” will be correct and to make matters worse it’s possible that none of them may
work and we might get a completely different answer.
So, when we have a polynomial divided by a polynomial we’re going to proceed much
as we did with only polynomials. We first identify the largest power of x in the
denominator (and yes, we only look at the denominator for this) and we then factor this
out of both the numerator and denominator. Doing this for the first limit gives,
1 8
2− −
x 2 x 3 2− 0− 0 2
lim = =
x →+∞ 7 − 5+0 − 5
− 5+ 4
x
In this case the indeterminate form was neither of the “obvious” choices of infinity, zero,
or -1 so be careful with make these kinds of assumptions with this kind of indeterminate
forms.
The second limit is done in a similar fashion. In this case it doesn’t matter which infinity
we are going towards we will get the same value for the limit.
2 x 4− x2− 8 x 2
lim =
x →− ∞ − 5 x 4 +7 −5
4 z +z
2 6
4 z 2 +z6
lim
3
lim 3
Example 4 Evaluate each of the following limits: z→+∞ 1− 5 z and z→− ∞ 1− 5 z
Solution
Let’s do the first limit and in this case it looks like we will factor a z3 out of both the
numerator and denominator. Remember that we only look at the denominator when
determining the largest power of z here.
4 3
+z
z
lim = +∞ = − ∞
z→+∞ 1 −5
3
−5
z
The final limit is negative because we have a quotient of positive quantity and a
negative quantity.
Now, let’s take a look at the second limit. Note that the only different in the work is at
the final “evaluation” step.
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4 3
+z
z
lim = − ∞ =+ ∞
z→− ∞ 1 −5
3
−5
z
In this case the z3 in the numerator gives negative infinity in the limit since we are going
out to minus infinity and the power is odd. The answer is positive since we have a
quotient of two negative numbers.
t 2 − 5 t− 9
lim 4 3
Example 5 Evaluate the following limit: t→+∞ 2t +3 t
Solution
In this case it looks like we will factor a t4 out of both the numerator and denominator.
Doing this gives,
1 5 9
− −
t 2 t3 t 4 0
lim = =0
t→+∞ 3 2
2+
t
5. Asymptotes
A) Definition: A line that a curve approaches as it heads towards infinity:
B) Types
There are three types: horizontal, vertical and oblique:
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The curve can approach from any side (such as from above or below for a horizontal asymptote)
And may actually cross over (possibly many times), and even move
away and back again.
The important point is that:
The distance between the curve and the asymptote tends to zero as they head to infinity
C) Horizontal Asymptotes ( // OX) :

Straight line y= b where b is a number which
It is a Horizontal Asymptote when:
as x goes to infinity (or to -infinity) then the curve approaches some

fixed constant value "b"
D) Vertical Asymptotes (// OY)
Straight line x= a where a is a point that is not in the domain and
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It is a Vertical Asymptote when:
as x approaches some constant value "c" (from the left or right) then
the curve goes towards infinity (or -infinity)
E) Oblique Asymptotes
Straight line y=mx+n where
and
It is an Oblique Asymptote when:
as x goes to infinity (or to -infinity) then the curve goes towards a line
defined by y=mx+b (note: m is not zero as that would be horizontal).
F) Example: (x2-3x)/(2x-2)
The graph of (x2-3x)/(2x-2) has:
 A vertical asymptote at x=1
 An oblique asymptote: y=(x/2)-1
Example of Horizontal asymptotes

2 x +1
f (x )=
Consider the function x− 1 . If we do the limit as x tends to positive or negative
1
2+
x 2
lim = =2
x →∞ 1 1
1−
infinity, we have this, x
If we represent this function, we have the following graph:
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Note that when x gets closer to infinity (x gets large, positive or negative), then the points on
the graph get closer to the horizontal line y= 2 . Such a line is called a horizontal
asymptote.
So if the limit at infinity exists, i.e., if it is a real number L, it represents a horizontal asymptote
at y= L . Polynomials do not have horizontal asymptotes; they may occur with rational
functions when the limit at infinity is 0 (the degree in the numerator is smaller than the degree
in the denominator) or any other real number (both degrees are the same).
Example of Oblique asymptotes
What happens if the degree is greater in the numerator than in the denominator? Let's see
the case when the numerator has degree exactly one greater than the denominator.
x 2 +x+1
For example, consider the function f (x )= x+1 .
If we divide the numerator by the denominator, we can express the function in the following
way:
x 2 +x+1 1
f (x )= =x+
x+1 x+ 1
1
So we can express the function as the addition of a linear part (x) and a remainder ( x+1 ).
When x tends to infinity, this remainder approaches 0, so we can say that the function f
approaches the linear part x. That is why we say that the line y= x is an oblique asymptote
of f (x ) . It might be clearer with the graph:
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If the degree of the numerator is more than 1 larger than the degree of the denominator, and
the denominator does not divide the numerator, there will be a non-zero remainder that goes
to zero as x increases, but the quotient will not be linear, and the function does not have an
oblique asymptote.
7. Continuity
We first start with graphs of several

continuous functions. The functions
whose graphs are shown on the right are
said to be continuous since these graphs
have no "breaks", "gaps" or "holes".
Intuitively, a function is continuous if you
can draw it without lifting your pen from
the paper.
We now present examples of

discontinuous functions. These graphs have breaks, gaps or points at which they are
undefined.
This function is undefined at x= 2 . The

graph has a hole at x= 2 and the function
is said to be discontinuous at x= 2 .
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In this function, the limits to the left and to

the right are not equal and therefore the
limit at x= 3 does not exist. The function is
said to be discontinuous at x= 3 .
The limits of the function at x= 2 exists but

it is not equal to the value of the function at
x= 2 . This function is also discontinuous.
The limits of the function at x= 3 is not a

real number since to the left and to the right
of 3 the function either increases or
decreases undefinitely. This function is also
discontinuous.
Taking into consideration all the information gathered from the examples of continuous and
discontinuous functions shown above, we define a continuous functions as follows:
Function f is continuous at a point x= a if the following conditions are satisfied.
1. f (a ) is defined
lim f (x )
2. x →a is a real number
lim f (x )= f (a)
3. x →a
Types of discontinuity
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If f is not continuous at x= a , then f is said to be discontinuous at x= a . The function f can

be discontinuous for two distinct reasons:
 f (x ) does not have a real limit as x a. Specifically, if the left- and right-hand limits
exist but are different, the discontinuity is called a jump discontinuity or a step
discontinuity. If, at least one of the lateral limits doesn't exist or it is infinity, the
discontinuity is called an essential discontinuity, or infinite discontinuity.
 f (x ) has a limit as x a, but f (x )≠ f (a ) or f (a) is undefined. This is called a

removable discontinuity, since we can "remove" the discontinuity at x= a by
redefining f (x ) .
Some important continuous functions
The following functions are always continuous, and you should be aware of them:
1. Polynomial functions
2. Rational functions, wherever the denominator is not zero
3. sin( x) and cos( x )
4. tan ( x ) , wherever the denominator is not zero

x
5. f ( x )= a , for any real number a>0
6. f (x )= ln (x)
7. The sum, difference, product, and quotient (as long as the denominator is not zero) of two
continuous functions is continuous
8. If f is a function that is continuous at each point of its domain and if f has an inverse, then
−1
the inverse f is also continuous at each point of its domain.
Example 1 Is f (x ) a continuous function?
{
f (x )= 2x − 2
2
5x− 4
if x≤ 2
if x>2 }
Solution
For a function to be continuous, it must be continuous at every point in its domain. The
obvious point for us to be worried about here is the point where the definition of f
changes, i.e. at x= 2 . At places other than at x= 2 , f is defined by polynomial
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functions, which we know are continuous. It is the point where these two continuous
functions meet that concerns us.
Therefore, to prove that f is a continuous function, we must prove that it is continuous at

lim f (x )= f (2)
x= 2 . In other words, we must show that x →2 .
lim f (x )
First let's see if x →2 exists by checking the left-hand and right-hand limits. As x
2
approaches 2 from the left, f (x ) is defined by the function 2 x − 2 , so
f (x )= 2 · 2 2− 2= 6 .
As x approaches 2 from the right, f (x ) is defined by the function 5 x− 4 , so

f (x )= 5· 2− 4= 6 .
lim f (x )= 6
Since both lateral limits are equal, we can say that x →2 .
2 2
At x= 2 , f (x ) is defined by 2 x − 2 , so f (2 )= 2· 2 − 2= 6 . Now we have shown
lim f (x )= f (2)
x →2 which shows that f (x ) is continuous at x= 2 . Since f (x ) is also
continuous when x≠ 2 , f (x ) is a continuous function. Below is a graph of f (x ) to
help you visualize what we have just done:
Summarizing:
1. f (2 )= 6 is defined
lim f (x )= 6
2. x →2 is a real number
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Región de Murcia I.E.

S LOS MOLINOS Center Code: 30013505

Unit 8: Functions (part II)

1. Limit of a function at a point

And let's work it out for x= 1 :

We are now faced with an interesting situation:

 When x= 1 we don't know the answer (it is indeterminate)

 But we can see that it is going to be 2

As a graph it looks like this:

So, in truth, you cannot say what the value at x= 1 is.

But you can say that as you approach 1, the limit is 2.

What if we have a function f (x ) with a

In this case, you can't say what the limit at

answers: 4 from the left, and 7 from the right.

And the ordinary limit "does not exist".

3. Evaluating limits at a point

Just put the value in

Example Substitute Value Works?

You can try factoring.

By factoring the numerator, we get:

Now we can just substitute x= 1 to get the limit:

lim ( x+1)= 1+1= 2

So, let's try some rearranging:

So, now we have:

Note that when x gets closer to

lim f ( x)= − ∞ lim f ( x)= − ∞

lim f ( x)= − ∞ lim f ( x)= +∞

lim f ( x)= +∞ lim f ( x)= − ∞

lim f ( x)= +∞ lim f ( x)= +∞

3.1. Limit of a rational funtions P(x) / Q(x) at a point c

4. Limits and infinity

lim f (x )=+∞ lim f (x )= − ∞

4.1. Properties of Limits when x tends to infinity:

If lim f(x)=a and lim g(x)= b, then we have:

4.2. Infinite Limits. Definitions.

4.3. Order of Infinity.

4.4. Operations with infinite expressions.

(+∞) + L = (+∞) (+∞) (+∞)=(+∞)

(+∞) + (+∞) = (+∞) (+∞) (─∞)=(─∞)

(─∞) + (─∞) = (─∞)

(±∞) / (0) = (±∞)

4.5. Indeterminate forms

4.6.Limits at infinity for polynomials

Therefore the value of the limit will be,

lim (2 x 4− x 2 − 8 x )=+ ∞· 2 =+∞

4.7. Limits of rational functions P(x) / Q(x) at a point infinity

i) If degree of P > degree of Q (m>n), then (according to sign of a/b)

ii) If degree of P < degree of Q (m<n), then

iii) If degree of P = degree of Q (m=n), then

The important point is that:

C) Horizontal Asymptotes ( // OX) :

It is a Horizontal Asymptote when:

as x goes to infinity (or to -infinity) then the curve approaches some

D) Vertical Asymptotes (// OY)

Straight line x= a where a is a point that is not in the domain and

It is a Vertical Asymptote when:

Straight line y=mx+n where

It is an Oblique Asymptote when:

The graph of (x2-3x)/(2x-2) has:

 A vertical asymptote at x=1

 An oblique asymptote: y=(x/2)-1

Example of Horizontal asymptotes