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    RF مجمع

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    Chapter 1 Introduction to Electronic Communications 1.1 Introduction The fundamental purpose of an electronic communication system is to transfer information from one place to another as in form of the transmission, reception, and processing of information between two or more locations using electronic circuits. The original source of information can be an analog form, such as the human voice or musie, or in digital form, such as binary-coded numbers or alphanumeric codes. An analog signal contains an infinite number of values. Digital signals are voltages or currents that change in discrete steps or levels. The most common form of digital signal is binary, which has two levels. 1.2 Electronic Communication Systems intomser Tansmnitier [» Cru ccniang PO Reo ae Souree | Recniver intelligence! may (iwen —" information Figure 1.1; Block diagram of an electronic communication system ® Figure 1.1 shows a simplified block diagram of an electronic communication system that includes a transmitter, a transmission medium, a receiver, and system noise, 1- A transmitter is a collection of one or more electronic devices or circuits that converts the original source information to a form more suitable for transmission over a particular transmission medium. 2- The transmission medium or communication channel provides a means of transporting signals between a transmitter and a receiver and can be as. simple as a pair of copper wires or as complex as sophisticated microwave, satellite, or optical fiber communication systems. System noise is any unwanted electrical signals that interfere with the information signal. 3- A receiver is a collection of electronic devices and circuits that accepts the transmitted signal from the transmission medium and then converts those signals back to their original form, 1.3Modulation and Demodulation Because it is often impractical to propagate information signals over standard transmission media, itis often necessary to modulate the source information onto a higher-frequency analog signal called carrier. In essence, the carrier signal carries the information through the system, The information signal modulates the cartier by changing either its amplitude, frequency, or phase, Modulation is simply the process of changing one or more properties of the analog carrier in proportion with the information signal. w® The two basic types of electronic communication systems are analog and digital. At analog communications system, energy is transmitted and received in an analog form (a continuously varying signal such as sine wave). With analog communication systems, both the information and the carrier are analog signals. The term digital communications, however, covers a broad range of ;ssion and digital radio. communication techniques, including digital trans Digital transmission is a true system where digital pulses («liserete levels such as + SV and ground) are transferred between two or more points in a communication system. With digital transmission, there is no analog carrier, and the original source information may be in digital or analog form. If it is in analog form, it must be converted to digital pulses prior to transmission and converted back to analog form at the receiver end. Digital transmission systems require a physical facility between the transmitter and receiver, such as a metallic wire or an optical fiber cable. Digital radio is the transmittal of digitally modulated analog carriers between two or more points in a communication system. With digital radio, the modulating signal and the demodulated signal are digital pulses. The digital pulses could originate from a digital transmission system, a digital source such as a computer, or a binary encoded analog signal. In digital radio systems, digital pulses modulate an analog carrier. Therefore, the transmission medium may be a physical facility or free space. Analog communication systems were the first to be developed; however, in recent years digital communication systems have become more popular. Equation 1-1 is the general expression for a time varying sine wave of voltage such as a high-frequency carrier signal, Ifthe information is analog and the amplitude (V) is varied Proportional to the information signal, amplitude modulation (AM) is produced. If the frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information signal, frequency modulation (FM) is produced, If the phase (0) is varied proportional to the information signal, phase modulation (PM) is produced. v(t) =V sin(2mfe + 0) (1-1) where v(t) = time-varying sine wave of voltage * V =peak amplitude (volts) f = frequency (hertz) © = phase shift (radians) If the information signal is digital and the amplitude of the carrier is : varied proportional to the information signal, a digitally modulated signal known as amplitude shift keying (ASK). If the frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information signal, frequency shift keying (FSK) is produced, and, if the phase (0) is varied proportional to the information signal, phase shift keying (PSK) is produced. If both the amplitude and the phase are varied proportional to the information signal, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) results. ASK, FSK, PSK, and QAM are forms of digi | modulation. Modulating si: Modulation performed. Analog AM FM PM v(@) = Vsin(2rf.e + 0) Digital ASK PSK — The Modulation Process Amplitude Modulation (AM) The Moduleciontrrécsse rs Frequency Modulation (FM) Phase modulation (PM) ANA! VAAL Amplitude Shift Key: ice cae oe eee re =] me —————pP Phase Shift Keying oN 0 1 1 | AA Vt Phas H i y y y a ll ry Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Modulation is performed in a transmitter by a circuit called modulator. A carrier that has been acted on by an information signal is called a modulated wave or modulating signal. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation and converts the modulated carrier back to the original information (i.e. removes the information from the carrier). Demodulation is performed in a receiver by a circuit called a demodulator. Pour There are ty¥0 reasons why modulation is necessary in electronic communications: 7i_Need For Modulation Low frequency signale cannot be transmitted over long distances if radintert directly into the : ia because of the following hurdles Space. This 1. Short Operating Range, The energy of any wave depends on its frequency—the Jar of tho wave, the greater the enurgy associated with it. Obviously the audio-ignal having amet; Coen and consequently small power cennot be transmitted over long distance when radiated diresly tte eee However, modulated wave (audio signal with high frequency) can be transmitted over long distenoere _ 2 Poor Radiation Efficiency. At audio frequencies, radiation is not practicable as effic sion a por. However, eesrial energy can be radiated efelently at high frequencies (anny faci 3. Mutual Interference. If low frequency signals are transmitted directly from @ 20 kHz), them would be mixed up and completely blanket the air, However, b; different py i y modulation di Sources all of frequency levels can be transmitted simultaneously without any interferemee ont MeSEREe8 of different 4, Huge Antenna Requirement. For efficient radiation of a signal, the Jength of transmitting and receiving antenna should be at least one quarter wavelength i.e. 1 pad ___Velocity = i _ = 25x18 4 frequency in Hz, : : ‘Thus for transmitting a signal of frequency 2 kHz, an antenna of length 37.5 km will be required, practically impossible. On the other hand, for transmitting a signal of frequency 2 MHz, an antenna of about 37.5 metres would be required which can be easily constructed. metres The carrier wave alone slso cannot be employed for transmission of message, though it has high fre. quency and enormous energy. The reason is that an unmodulated carrier wave has all of ita Laciesipainig constant (constant amplitude, constent frequency and constant phase relationship with respect to some reference) while message hes chenging quantities. es 7 | asa the solution lies io modulation that enables @ low-frequency signal transmission over long dis- tances through space with the help of a high frequency carrier wave. These carrier waves need reasonably sized antenns and produce no interference with other transmitters operating in the same area. The proses of varying amplitude of the hi a © Guect ¢ igh frequency or carrier wave in accor wit int ce ieeeane een transmitted, Keeping the frequency and the phase rie eres vnchanged eases ‘odulation, In this process the modulating signal (intelligence) is superimposed Siac sc nquaney carrier by applying Heth . 8 nonlinear impedance (e.g., the modulator). The principle halfgcaa Grae a ii ed in Fig. 23.2. In this process the amplitudes of both positive and negative fave are varied in accordance with the intelligence, The ‘er a ons f sine cee follow the amplitude variations of the modulating ae eae eens forme odulatin P it is ¥ i: of ds caries wae te i Ae modulating wave. From Fig. 23.2 it is obvious that the amplitude variations Lf ' fame ae that of the canter suena! frequency and the frequency of the amplitude modulated wave is the and v,, =V, sina, t ee) ee fs where v., V, and , are the instantaneous value, peak value and angular velocity of the carrier and v,,, V,, and o,, are the instantaneous value, maximum value and angular velocity of the modulating signal. Phase angle has been ignored in both equations as it remains unchanged in amplitude modulation patcess. ~~" ‘The amplitude of the carrier wave varies at a modulating i signal frequency f,."The amplitude of amplitude modulated wave 1 is given as Ga TET (@) Carrier Wave =V, (+ msin o,f) (28.3) I A ‘where m is the ratio of peak values of modulating signal and carrier and is known. as modulation inder. Its value is restricted I AY between zero and unity. The instantaneous value of amplitude-modulated wave is sii given by the following equation rn ee ee Modulation v =A sino, =V, (1+ min og) sin 0,1 Visin o, f+ mV, (in a, ¢sin a, Fig. 232, #V, sin 0, £+ XE cos (a, 0) t= HE cat (0, + 09) (28.4) Inspection of Eq. (23.4) reveals that the y et eon oa) amplitude modulated wave is equivalent to the i ve Summation of three sinusoid : one having @, amplitude V, and frequency 27, the second = Welt «sine paving amplitude ak and frequency = 8 -"™% ce mY, and the third having amplitude “5+ and frequency +=, In practical radio- 2 transmission, 6, may be many times greater than «,, Bence the frequency of the second and Shird tsi on the right hand side of Bq. (23-4) ie generally close to the carrier frequency. 123.4 ropresents this situation graphically eee Ethe frequency spectrum pot, The frequency components contained in the amplitude- oe modulated wave are shown by vertical lines ‘approximately located along the frequency — ‘he height of each vertical line is drawn in Te eien to ite amplitude, The lower fequensy component S=28 is called the lower side (6) Frequency Spectrum ofa Sinusoidally Modulated Wave Sette ig cal upper side frequency, i. frequency. The upper frequency component “p°~ Js 6 Ned the upper side frequency. The amplitude of each mY Th ‘ude of sideband frequencies can never oxcecd half the carrier ampli side frequency ie "2. The amplitude of sideband freq tier amplitude because m # 1. Mlence i can be coneluded that during the process of amplitude modulation jence it can be conels 2" Blectronic Devices and Circuits” gg ete ang SiMe 5, @ the original carrier frequency is not altered but two new frequencies "2 x * Known ag -oy , sideband frequencies, are produced, +8 ig tamed the upper-sideband (US®) and ““7q is termed ag . 2 al is of 2 kHz then the mod, the lower-sideband (LSB). For example if the carrier is of 1 MHz and the sift , a. lated signal contains carrier of 1 Miz ‘and upper-sideband of 1,002 kHz and lower-sideband of 998 kHz, : i , (Gd the carrier voltage component does not transmit any information because the signal frequency Sa 2 is contained in sidebands only which is evident from Fig. 23.3 (0). 2 Ge ao se i in amplitode modulated wave tha bandwidth is foun Spee 10 gq SE gg ST twee the eign) frequency. For example, if the frequency of modulating signal is 2 kHz, the total bandwideh of the modu. lated wave ie 4 ka, and this bandwideh must be passed by all transmitting and receiving circuits, When a carrier is amplitude modulated by a single frequency, two sideband frequencies are produced. When a modulating signal consists of more than one frequency, two sideband frequencies are produced by every Zrequency. I the modulating signal contains two frequencies, four sideband frequencies are produced i.e. two upper-side and two lower-sideband frequencies. ‘The number of sideband frequencies higher than the carrier frequency are the same as the number of frequencies lower than it. All the sideband frequencies above the carrier frequency make up the USB and all those below the carrier frequency forms the LSB. The frequencies in the USB represent the sum of the individual modulating frequencies and the carrier frequency while those in LSB represent the difference between the modulating frequencies and the carrier frequency. The total bandwidth can be expressed in terms of the highest modulating frequency and is equal to twice this frequency. fas: Modulation Index (m) ‘The extent by which the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied by the modulating signal is called the degree of amplitude modulation or modulation index and is represented by m. Thus the ratio of change in ampli- ‘tude of carrier wave to the amplitude of normal carrier wave is called the modulation index, m 2 V_ (amplitude change of carvier wave) '™ = [amplitude of normal or unmodulated carsier wave aaa ‘The modulation index is a number lying between 0 and 0,8. When it is expressed as percentage, then it is called the percentage modulation. "The percentage modulation of « modulated carrier is determined by dividing the change in amplitude by the amplitude of the unmodulated carrier, multiplied by 100 fe. % modulation = J x 100 or) ‘Modulation index may also be defined in terms of the values referred to the modulated carrier w and is given as m= Yon=¥, Nase * Vise haar nd Vig are the maximum and minimum values of the amplitude of the modulated carzies wave ‘This is Worked out cs ‘Consider the modulated carrier wave ee shown in Fig. 284 - ENTER 2Vq = Viner ~ Visin canner : i. a vie YucYen = tR and Ve = Vinx ~ = Nam + Vain (28.8) 2 nest Dividing Bq, (23.7) by Ba, (23.8) wo get m= Ne = You zVoin Ve Venex * Vista Amplitude Modulated Radio-Frequency Carrier Wave Crnnnnd be ‘Modulation and Demodulation — For a sinusoidal modulating signal, where the modu- lation is symmetrical about the carrier, the modulation index is also given by the relations: + Yusz=Vain = Verr-¥, ¥,-¥, asa +p mo MangVate « Hoae—We 2 Lote 319 tA Amplitude modulated waves for different values of VV V ‘m’ are shown in Fig. 23.5. (@) Case 1. Smallest value of m= 0 ie., when the amplitude of the modulating signal is zero. It means that m= 0 for an unmodulated carrier wave. (©) When the signal amplitude is one-half, of the car- rier amplitude, as shown in Fig. 23.5 (a). In this case, the amplitude of the carrier wave varies between 1.5 A 5 A where A is the amplitude of normal (or unmodu- lated) carrier wave, So the change in the amplitude of carrier 1L5A-A 5 A \ ; A and m = 234 = 05 or 50% V | The carrier is said to be 50% modulated. (©) When the signal amplitude equals the carrier ude, as shown in Fig. 23.5 (b). In this case, the amplitude of carrier wave varies between 2 A and zero, ‘So the change in the amplitude of earric and m 2 = 10 or 100% ‘ ‘The carrier wave is 100% modulated. | | (@) m=0.5 or 50% @)m=19 or 100% (©) When the signal amplitude is more than that of the carrier. In such a case the modulation is called the over- modulation because m exceeds unity. In this case, the am- plitude of the trough of the wave reaches zero amplitude ‘and remains there for a finite time period, as illustrated in Fig, 22.5 (¢). Modulation in exeess of 100 per cent is undesirable because it produces severe distortion and interference, called spatter, in the transmitter output. : (m>t or over 100% ‘Modulation index ‘m' isa very important factor, as Degree of Modulation it determines the strength and quality of the transmit- Enaaaas d al. In an amplitude modulated wave, the signal (ie. m << }), the amount of carrier amplitude variation is small and, therefore, the audio-signal transmitted -* ii ii jul on index, the audio-signal becomes stronger and strox {E weak. With the increase in value of modulation index, # emi nger. 1s wen Waceeds unity, severe distortion and interference are produced in the transmitter output. Masi. But i ndiatorted power of radio transmission is obtained for unity modulation index (i.e., m = 1), in Amplitude Modulated Wave ‘mplitude modulated wave has the same im Eq. (23.4) ‘i i cea From Fa. (irs unmodulated carrer. However, two sideband components are also prevent in the modulated Plitnarnus the modulated wave has more power than that had by the carrier wave before modulation, Now total power in the modulated wave is given as en the carrier wave is modulsted to a small degree Prat = Pesrrer + Pisn + Pusp : =-A93.11) When aa'amplitude modulated wave is impressed upon some resistance (say antenna resistance) R then vA. ME vane (HEY +H os 612s ee 7 $ Hence power in esch sideband 2. Enoch sideband has peak value of V, and rms value of 3 y a SH) wt aE = 2 ra 89 : Piss = Puss = = aR 4 OR 5.18) in Bq, (28.11) we h Substituting values of Pesrieer Pisa and Pysp from Ea. (28.12) and (23.18) in a . ave 2 ri We nt VE ot ME 2 YE (142) = Pot (#) rao Pou = gta aR’ @ an OR? ee : yr in the amplitude modu. Conclusions. 1. From above Eq, (28.14) it is obvious that the maximum powel lated wave (without distortion) will occur for m = i.¢. Pray = 15 Prarie When m= 2, The ratio of Psp and Pin. is given a5 ss nt es ni me wp = . Prariee + “ir Pearce : 28.18) Pai a mn Paaser| we B, y2 _ or m = 1, TR = Form = 3, 5 in the two sidebands and ed wave is contained i ent, which is of no Use. ie. only one-third of the total power of the modulate 4 by several sinusoidal modulating signals. rest of the two-third power lies in the carrier compont 3, In most applications, carrier is simultaneously modulate; In such a case the total modulation index is given as (23.16) m= [nfo tn ‘ier) current and total modulated current represent the rms values of unmodulated (or carr! 4, If T, and I, ‘end B is the resistance through which these current flow, then PB ER ° tan eC) on But from Bq, (29.14), ul = 2+ LT ais @ so | 1 oe 2: Limitations of Amplitude Modulation ‘Amplitude modulation suffers from the following drawbacks : 1, Low Efficiency. In amplitude modulation, the useful power that lies in the si is qui ‘0 the efficiency of AM system is low, ies in the sidebands, is quite small, 2, Limited Operating Range. Transmitters employing amplitude modulation ha = This ie due to low efficiency. Hence information cannot be transmitted pass tang ane 5. Noiay Reception. In case of AM, the reception is generally noisy. This i bec o-recei ot Feed tae ects gree er eee et 4, Poor Audio Quality. In order to attain high fidelity reception, all audio-frequencies upto 16 kHe vont be reproduced and this necessitates the bandwidth of 30 kHz while the ‘AM brondonating station mis ovigned bandwidth of only 10 kHe to minimise the interference from the adj asting str ae sesignsforefore in AM broadcasting stations audio quality is usually poor aaa igxample 23,1, A rinusokdl carrer voltage {6 amplitude modulated by a sinusoidal ; ton Sits and ite voltage i6 20 V: el Solution: Frequency of carrier, fe Frequency of signal, fy, = 10 KHe (28.18) = 10 MHz or 10,000 kHz ‘Modulation and Demodulation. Amplitude of carrier, V, = 20 V Modulation index, m = 80% or 0.3 Lower sideband frequency = f, ~ fy = 10,000 - 10 = 9,990 kHz Ans. Upper sideband frequency = f, + f,, = 10,000 + 10 = 10,010 kHz An Amplitude of each sideband = ay = 0.3 x = Example 28.2. The maximum or crest amplitude of a sinusoidally modulated wave is 1.6 V, its minimum o trough amplitude is 200 mV and its average (unmodulated) amplitude is 900 mY. The maximum amplitude of modulating signal is 700 mV, Find the modulation index by different relations. Solution: Maximum or crest amplitude, Viiyy = 1.6 V ‘Minimum or trough amplitude, Vijq = 200 mV = 0.2 V 3V Ans. 10 mV +200 mV Average (unmodulated) amplitude, V, z Maximum amplitude of modulating signal, V,, = 700 mV = 0.7 V — Vn 2 07 () Modulation index, m= Ya = &1 = 0.777 Ans. a ve 08 Van ~ Vy Gi) Modulation index, m = Yas —Vnin = ae e Vinax + Vein (i) Modulation index, m = Yn Via (Gu) Modulation index, m = Zam= (0 Modulation index, m = Ye=Vaia = ‘The result is the same, as expected. ‘Example 28.8. How many stations can be broadcast within a band of 12 MHz bandwidth simultancously without cane ro At tach other? Take maximum audio sigoal frequency employed for modulating the carrier not to exceed 15 kHz. a ution : Bandwidth (BW) required by each station = 2 X /,, (max) = 2 x 16 = 30 kHz. Hencs, the number of stations Solution : Bande Ce eee ana of 2 Mia bandwith without interfering with each eter (= 121,000 30 = 400 Ans. Example 23.4. A carrier wave of 400 watts is subjected to 80% amplitude modulation, Determine (°) power jn sidebands and (ii) total power of modulated wave, Solution : Pearrier = 400 watts 80 index, m= 22 = 0.8 Modulation index, m = <5 me = nt (oxy Tr = a ( Sideband power Pep = Piso + Pusn = “f- Peasser * G~ Peamir = “g se (i Total power of modulated wave, Pa =P wa Fen a a sh maW ha _ sai minrpotaiated to dopth of 78%. Calilate the total power Pin the modulated Example 23.6, A 400 W (P,) carrier is si he pve on moda wave, ation Pas = 4000 ene Modulation index, m = 76% 0.75 sa ecn( Tota) radiated power, Prorat = Pearsier\2+ 3") = . Sana i ern meta ston x 400 ="128'W Ans, |=5125W Ans, jution : fodulation index, m = 80% = 0.8 Solution : M Haden Sideband power, Psa = Ee 2 oot Ane, + z Foralpoworin modulated wave, Panel 45 +e Example 23,7. RMS value of n RF voltage after amplitude modulation to a depth of 60% by 4 sinusoidal voltage is 60 V. Calculate the rms value of modulated voltage when modulated to depth of : Solution: For 60% modulation, modulated voltage, V, ma) = 60 V mt From Bg, (29.14), Ziel " Further oat x fe So we have (% =1+ RMS value of modulated voltage with 75% modulation v. {oo} +00 fr 2] - namitter is 8,0 A when only the carrier is sent, but it increases, Determine also the antenna 2.5 V Ans. ‘Example 28,8. The current in antenna of an AM tray to 8.0 A, when carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Find the percentage modulation. D y current when the depth of modulation is 0.77. [UPS.C. LES. Electrical Engineering I, 2003] Solution: Carrier current, I, = 8A Total modulated current, I, = 9.4 hoe mm and ft = yt «= {TF (—) -sfe2-ams ns ‘When depth of modulation, m 7 : Antenna current, I, = Toyo = 6+ 222 <514 Ans oTYPES: OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION: || | | | " ‘As already discussed in Art. 23.4.1, one carrier and two sidebands are produced in AM generation. However, it is not essential that all these signals are trans- mitted to enable the receiver to reconstruct the original signal. One may attenu- fate or altogether remove the carrier or any of the sidebands without affecting the (@) DSB-SC System communication proce "Accordingly there are 3 possible suppressed component systems viz. DSB.SC | | (double-sideband suppressed carrier) system, SSB-TC (single-sideband transmit ted carrier) system and SSB-SC (single-sideband suppressed carrier) system, In DSB-SC system, as its name indicates, carrier component is altogether removed resulting in saving of enormous amount of power. From Art, 23.4.9 it & 6 1 is known that carrier signal contains two-third of total transmitted power for 100% () SSB-TC System e modulation. | | o In SSB-TC system, one sideband is suppressed and the carrier and other sideband are transmitted, as shown in Fig. 23.6 (b). In this case one-sixth of total transmitted power is saved for 100% modulation, ‘ SSB.SC system consists in transmitting only one sideband and suppress t} =I SSB-SC sy! press the eon ces syatan other aideband and the carrier, as shown in Fig. 23.6 (o). It utilizes the fact that ‘the intelligence or message is contained in cach sideband and not in the carrier. ‘Two sidebands being the exact images of cach other, carry the same audio intel- genes: ‘Thus, all information is available in one sideband only, and one sideband along the earrier can be discarded with no loss of intelligence. fodulation arid Demodulation Tae However, for demodulation purpose at the receiving end, carrier is necessary. Hence in this system, carrier re-inserted at the receiving end in proper phase, frequency and amplitude. The received sideband and the inserted carrier are then mixed in a demodulator to get back the original signal. The advantages of SSB-SC (or SSB) system are given below : 1, Smaller operating cost. . 9 to 12 dB improvement in signal/noise power ratio in the reproduced output at the receiving end. This is because SSB signal has narrower bandwidth, therefore a narrower passband is permissible within the receiver, thereby limiting the noise pickup. 8, Small sized power supply requirement—very important in a spacecraft, 4, Half bandwidth per channel multiplexing twice as many channels in a given frequency range. 5. 83.3% saving in total transmitted power. €, Removal of distortion due to selective fading. 7, Reduction in carrier interference with other stations. 8. Some privacy automatically provided. Of course, the receiver for the SSB system gets complicated and the use of SSB system is, therefore, ited to radio telephony. The standard or double-sideband full-carrier (DSB-FC) transmission system is videly used in broadcasting because of its relative simplicity of its modulating equipment. There are various methods of suppressing carrier and one sideband. However, the carrier is suppressed always by employing some form of balanced modulator. For suppression of one sideband in SSB system, the following three methods are commonly employed. 1. Filter method 2. Phase-shift method and 3, Weaver's method. Example 23.9. Compare the average transmitter power and channel bandwidth requirements of DSB, SSB and 4M schemes for transmitting an audio-signal with a bandwidth of 10 kHe with a destination signal to noise ratio of 50 dB, Assume that channel introduces a 60 dB power loss and that the noise power spectral density at the receiver input is 107 W/Hz. Assume the ratio of total sideband power to the carrier power for AM as 0. Solution: [UPS.C. LES. Elec. Engineering I, 19951 Signal bandwidth, /,, = 10 kHz Bandwidth for DSB Bonéwidth for SSB Bandwidth for AM = Noise-power spectral density at receiver input (c) Tranemitted power for SSB system fy = 2X10 = 20 kHz Ans. fq = 10 KHz Ans. fn = 2% 10 = 20 kHz Ans. 07? WiH2 50, (GIN)... = 60 dB = Antilogy 75 = 10! 2 Soy, = 108 X 107! x 10 Kets = 108 x 10°" x 104 = 10° W. “ Sq/Squ = 50 AB = 10° - Hence §,, = 0° x 10° = 100 W Ans, ‘Tranunitted power for DSB system | ° Sau: = 20 x 10 x 2 x 108 = 2 x 10° W Henee §,, = 10° x 2 x 10 = 200 W Ans. (@ Transmitted power for AM system Power in the two sidebands at the output = ewer in the two sidobands at the input ‘Total power at the input 08 x 107 x 2 x 108 10° x 2 « 10 = 200 W farrier power + sideband power x sideband power + sideband power x 109 Ww = 8x 200 = 600 W Ans, .- Sideband power Carrier power ~ 5 Ce 3.10.1, Total or Net modulation index for Multiple-Tone Modulation 1. Definition Let us consider that m, is the total o net modulation indexes for a multiple-tone modulation. 2, Mathematical Expression ‘We know that for a multiple-tone modulation, the total power is expressed as 2 Paps s eee (8.46) eae where m,, my... m, are the modulation indexes for different modulating signals. ‘The power for AM wave is also expressed as 2 », »{.n’) (847) Comparing equations (3.46) and (3.47), we get md = m+ mg? + mg + or im, = ofa + mg? + ma 2-(8.48) ‘This is the desired éxpression for the total or net modulation index.* EXAMPLE 3.12. An AM transmitter radiates 9 kW of power when the carrier is unmodulated and 10.125 kW when the carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Find the modulation index, percentage of modulation. Now, if another sine wave, corresponding to 40 percent modulation {s transmitted simultaneously, then calculate the total radiated power. (Very Important) Solution : (?) We know that for a single-tone sinusoidal amplitude-modulation the total power is expressed a “SThe power distribution in ‘The percentage of modulation. ae ; m™ wai) waftd nanos] modulated or total power where = unmodulated or carrier power m,, = modulation index Given that, P, = 10.125 kW and P, Using equation (i), we get or or (@ We know that in case of modulation by tw sinusoidal waves, is expressed a5 Let 1 i 04 Given that mg = 0. ‘Therefore, im, = (0.5)? +(0.4)" = (0.25 + 0.16 or im, = V0a1 = 0.64 ‘The total radiated power inthis case will be me 06 p= Riirte] eon tes , = 9 (2+ 0.205) = 10.84 kW the total modulation irdex m, ion and Demodulati 23.8. BASIC PRINCIPLE OF AM GENERATION. witude modulation. che modulating creat performs an oP the amplitude of the RF voltage and current ig information signal (audio or video, for example) Th sntematce val The mofulting cies jealy en testis aust be varied. The gain must be increased moment olulated signal, An amplines with nominear tenets harace ‘The modulating circuit is generally a nonlinear RF amplifier, The modulating sigma! between points se ohh gain and lower, col waves produced by speech or the diaphragm ofa micro- phone that converts them into a tiny varying current, The audiofrequency output of the microphone is amplified by a low-level audio-amplifier and, - ally by power amplifier. ‘On the other side, the carrier waves of radio-frequency are generated by & exystal-controlled oscillator. These cazriore waves are applied to a tuned ‘buffer amplifier and finall output smplifier. Buffer amplifier is used to isolate ‘The amplitied audio signal is then combined to the transmitter antenna. ‘The device which is used to generate an Amplitude modulated (AAD wave is known as Amplitude Modulator. ‘The methods of AM Generation may be broadly classified follow : thebettpect AL bec @ Low-level AM Modulation anexmeanely goes @ High-level AM Modulation Te 3.11.1. Low Level Amplitude Modulation Figure 36 shows the block diagram of a low level AM. ai modulation system. In a low-level amplitude modulation Perwest madelasen, System, the modulation is done at low power level. * The modulator performs « tatheaatial nukigbaten Gov acne ai Sie aaa Se ‘output is their analog product, power levels, a very small power is associated with the car Because of this, the output power of medulatisn is low. Theres to boost the amplitude-modulated signals upts the desired figure 86, it is clear that modulation is done at low power level, Ate signal (ie. a signal containing & Rewbander carrier and two sidebands) is applied svete [TS] to a wide-band power amplifier. A Sigal se Leama | fde-band power amplifier is used just to preserve the sideband of the modulated signal, Amplitude modula- ted systems, employing modulation at low power levels are also called lows level amplitude modulation transmitters, ‘Square law diode modulation and ) 8 3.11.2. High Level Amplitude Modulation* (WBTU, Kolkata, Sem. Exam; 2005-06) Figure 3.7 shows the block diagram of a high level AM modulation system. In a high-level amplitude modulation system, the modulation is done at high power level. Therefore, to produce amplitude-modulation at these high power levels, the baseband signal and the carrier signal must be at high power levels. In block diagram of figure 8.7 the modulating signal and carrier signal are first power amplified and'then applied to AM high-level modulator. For modulating signal, the wide- band power amplifier is required just to preserve all the frequency components present in modulating signal. On the other hand, for carrier signal, the narrow-band power amplifier is required because it is a fixed-frequency signal. The collector modulation method is the example of high-level modulation. Baseband or modulating Signal source | Wide-band Sa) ree [——. ee amplifier Y Pa High Level / AM modulator ‘RF Carrier Narrow-band t Oscillator power amplifier Fig. 3.7 Block Diagram for High level AM Modulation Ys Important Point: Before we discuss low level and high level modulation methods in detail, we shall establish the fact that.a non-linear resistance of a non-linear device can be made to produce Amplitude Modulation when two different frequencies are passed together through: it. 3.11.3. Non-linear Resistance or Non-linear Circuits ‘We know that the relationship between voltage and current in a linear resistance is expressed as i=bv +=(8.49) * High-level modulation is the process of amplitude modulating the final power amplifier of a transmitter. Amplitude Modulation & 433) where oltage across the linear resistance = current through linear resistance and = any constant of proportionality If equation (3.49) is applied to a resistor, then constant b is [ clearly its conductance. Also, if equation (3.49) is applied to the linear portion of the transistor characteristic then iis the collector . current and v is the voltage applied to the base. » As more general, equation (3.49), may be written as of Fig. 3.8 Linear resistance ort (8.50) characteristics where a is the d.c. component of the current. Now, let us consider a non-linear resistance. For a non-linear resistance the current-voltage characteristics will be non-linear as shown in figure 3.9. The non-linear relationship between voltage and current may be expressed as a+ byt cv? + du + (3.51) e a i di Ali in the ui 5 a ee oeeae oe Coes ae ae ee Fig. 3.9 Non-linear resistance .aracteristics of a non-linear resistance, the current becomes Gees proportional not only to voltage but also to the square, cube and higher powers of the voltage. For simplicity, neglecting the higher terms in equation (3.51), we have i=atbu+c? Devices or cirenits having non-linear v-i characteristics can be treated as a non-linear resistance.” For example, devices like diodes, transistors, FET etc. exhibit non-linear characteristics and hence work as a non-linear resistance. Equation (3.52), may be used in relating the output current (8.52) to the input voltage of a non-linear resistance. We can apply this equation to the gate-voltage-draii =atbu+c« If two voltages are applied at gate simultaneously, then i= a+ b(v, + v4) + ev, + v2)" i = at b(v, + U9) + e(Y42 + U2" +2 v0») Let us consider that the two input voltages are sinusoidal having different frequencies, then, current characteristics of a FET, then =+(8.53) . = V, sin of and = Vz sin pt Here, and p are eae two different frequencies. Putting the values of v, and vg in equation (3.53), we gov i = a+ 6(V, sin ot + V; sin pt) + ¢(V,? sin? of + C,* sin? pt + 2V, Vz sin at sin pt) + bY, sin wt + bV, sin pt + cV,? sin® wt + eV, sin’ pt + 2cV,V» sin ot sin pt in pt+2eV;2(2sin? at) +4 eV! (sin? pt) + eV;V_(2sin wtsin pt) sin pt+3eNi 5h A = 2 or i = a+bVsinot +bVy Tbe carried out by linearly combining the carrier and intelligence signals rcuit. A diode is an exainple. 7+ Rinplitude modulation can im and then appliying the result to a nonlinear component or } 34) Communication Systems a of a+bV, sinot +bVp 61 1+ eV," -cos ot) sieve ~cos2pt) +cV;V,[cos(w p)t—cos(w+ p)t or a+bV, sinat+bVpsin pid evi? —LeviP costars tev, ~hev? cos 2 pt + cV;V2 cos(w~ p) t-cV;V_ cos(w+ p)t 1 gti leya ; oc a+ Zev? +Le¥.") + bY; sina +6V) in pt q) @) (3) Vy? cosnot+ ey cos2pt) + eVi¥e cos(«- p)t ® a) =cV,V; cos(w+ p)t (3.54) © In equation (3.54), if w is assumed as the carrier frequency and p is assumed as modulating frequency then we can identify the different terms as follow : term (1) is the d.c. component term (2) is the carrief signal term (3) is the modulating signal term (4) contains harmonics of the carrier signa! and the modulating signal, term (5) is the lower sideband term (6) is the upper sideband* Since, the process of amplitude modulation consists of carrier signal, lower sideband and upper sideband, therefore we can conclude from above that when two voltages of different frequencies are passed through a non-linear resistance, the Amplitude Modulation takes place. In a practical modulation circuit, the frequencies other than the carrier and two sideband frequencies are rejected with the help of a tuned circuit, 3.11.4, Square Law Diode Modulation (Anna, University, Channai Sem., Exam., 2003-04) 1, Definition Square law diode modulation circuit make use of nonlinear current-voltage characteristics of diode, This method is suited at low voltage levels because of the fact that current-voltage characteristic of a diode is highly non linear particularly in the low voltage region as shown in figure 3.10. 2. Circuit Diagram 0 Diode voltage Figure 3.11. shows thecireuit of squarelaw diode Fig. 3.40 Current-voltage characteristic modulation. ofa diode Diode current “+ The new signals generated by the modulation process are called sidcbands and occur at frequendles above and below the carrier frequency. 3. Working Operation ¢ a> It may be observed from the figure 8.11, that carrier and modulating signals are applied across the diode. A d.c. battery V,, is connected across the diode to get a fixed operating point on the v-i characteristics of diode. The working of this circuit may be explained by considering the fact when two different frequencies are passed through a non-linear device, the process of amplitude modulation takes place. Hence when carrier and modulating frequencies are applied at the input of diode, then different frequency terms appear at the output of diode. These different frequency terms are applied across a tuned circuit which is tuned to the carrier | frequency and has a narrow bandwidth "*C) signal (modulating just to pass two sidebands alongwith the [| es carrier and reject other frequencies. + *nh= Hence at the output of tuned circuit, Veo carrier and two sidebands are obtained ie., Amplitude Modulated (AM) wave is produced. 4, Mathematical Analysis vp (output voltage) Fig. 3.11 Square-law diode modulation an Basic circuit of a square law diode modulator is shown in Fig. 28712. It utilizes the nonlinear region of voltage-current dynamic characteristic of a'P-N diode. The ac current i may be expressed as @ function of ac voltage v, as given by the following Taylor series. oyu, + oyu? (28.28) c where a, and a, are the Taylor series coefficients and v, = V,sina,t + V,sin gt (28.24) Substituting the value of’ v, fom Bq. (23.24) in Eq, (23.28), we have i= ,V, sino + 0,V,, sin @,,¢ + dp [V2 sin? 0, £42 Ve Vn Sin @, f8in Oy t+ Vig Sin Om q The quantity in bracket derives from the square term in Eq. (23.23). A litile thought reveals that it this term which gives rise to the product of the carrier and modulating sinusoids, which, in turn, ‘yields the upper and lower frequency sidebands thereby permitting the amplitude-modulated signal to be identitied 1200520! in above equation we have Substituting sin? @,¢ = . e2 2 : 2 22 y2 con iv? +¥2)+a;V, 9in mt SVE c08 2m

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