Module ELS

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QUARTER 1
CONTENT STANDARD MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES
The learners demonstrate

understanding of...
the formation of the universe and the Recognize the uniqueness of Earth, being the properties necessary to
solar system support life.
the subsystems (geosphere, Explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose
hydrosphere, atmosphere, and boundaries matter and energy flow.
biosphere) that make up the Earth
the Earth’s internal structure
he three main categories of rocks Classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
he origin and environment of Identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical
formation of common minerals and properties.
rocks
geologic processes Explain how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion and
deposited elsewhere.
Describe where the Earth’s internal heat

comes from.
Describe how magma is formed (magmatism).
folding and Faulting of Rocks Explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds and
faults
plate tectonics
Describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed
evolution of Earth
Describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) to determine
the age of stratified rocks
Explain how relative and absolute dating were used to determine the
subdivisions of geologic time
Describe how the Earth’s history can be interpreted from the geologic time
scale
the different hazards caused by Describe the various hazards that may happen in the event of earthquakes,
geological processes (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides
volcanic eruptions, and landslides)
Using hazard maps, identify areas prone to hazards brought about by
the different hazards caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides
hydrometeorological phenomena
(tropical cyclones, monsoons, floods, Identify human activities that speed up or trigger landslides
and tornadoes or ipo-ipo) Using hazard maps, identify areas prone to hazards brought about by
the different hazards caused by tropical cyclones, monsoons, floods, or ipo-ipo
coastal processes (waves, tides, Describe how coastal processes result in coastal erosion, submersion, and
sea-level changes, crustal saltwater intrusion
movement, and storm surges)
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to;
1. explain the different theories that deal with the formation of the universe and the solar
system;
2. differentiate the Earth’s subsystems and their role;
3. distinguish the different layers of the Earth and Earth’s uniqueness.
SCHEMA MAP
Schema New Learning Misconception
LEARNING CONTENT
Lesson 1: Origin of the Universe and the Solar System
Formation of the Universe

Universe is all of space and everything in it including stars, planets, galaxies and etc. The
science that deals with the study of the universe, its properties, structure and evolution is known
as cosmology. The science of cosmology provides several hypotheses explaining the beginning
of the universe based on the present physical and chemical properties of the universe.
Theories about the origin of the Universe
A. Creationist Theory
This theory states that God, the Supreme Being created the whole universe out of nothing.
The proof can be read in the Holy Bible stipulating that God created heavens and the Earth
including man.
B. Steady-State Theory
A view that the universe is always expanding but maintaining a constant average density,
with matter being continuously created to form new stars and galaxies at the same rate that old
ones become unobservable as a consequence of their increasing distance and velocity of
recession. A steady-state universe has no beginning or end in time, and from any point within it
the view on the grand scale.
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C. Big Bang Theory
It is the most accepted theory because it provides the best explanation and is implicitly
accepted. This theory was proposed by Georges Lemaitre. The big bang theory states that the
energy and matter of the universe were compressed in a hot and dense state. About 13.7 billion
years our universe began as a cataclysmic explosion, which continued to expand, cool and evolve
to its current state. Temperature decreased sufficiently to allow clumps of matter to collect. These
materials formed the first nebulae, which evolved into first stars and galaxies. This marked the
birth of the universe.
D. Oscillating Universe
This theory was proposed by a Russian-born US cosmologist George Gamow who helped
in explaining the Big Bang Theory. He said that the expansion of the universe will come to its end
and it will go back to its original form. This process will happen as a cycle.
E. Expanding Universe
The universe or sometimes called cosmos is still expanding in a Doppler Red Shift in the
light we receive. The red shift also called as the cosmological red shift shows an increasing
distance between us and other galaxies. It states that other galaxies are rushing away from us and
their speed is directly proportional to their distance. The universe will continue its outward
expansion for 35 billion years and come to rest.
F. Plasma Universe
It states that 99% of the observable universe is made up of plasma and that Big Bang
never really happened. In this theory, the universe is a crisscrossed by gigantic electric current
and huge magnetic field.
G. Cosmic Inflation Theory

According to the cosmic inflation theory of physicists Alan Guth and Andrei Linde, the
universe went under rapid expanding bubble of pure vacuum energy. After the expansion and
cooling due to inflation, the potential energy was converted into kinetic energy of matter and
radiation.
1.2 Formation of the Solar System
A. Nebular Theory
According to this theory, the Sun and all the planets of our Solar System began as a giant
cloud of molecular gas and dust. Then, about 4.57 billion years ago, something happened that
caused the cloud to collapse. This could have been the result of a passing star, or shock waves
from a supernova, but the end result was a gravitational collapse at the center of the cloud.
From this collapse, pockets of dust and gas began to collect into denser regions. As the denser
regions pulled in more and more matter, conservation of momentum caused it to begin rotating,
while increasing pressure caused it to heat up. Most of the material ended up in a ball at the
center while the rest of the matter flattened out into disk that circled around it. While the ball at the
center formed the Sun, the rest of the material would form into the protoplanetary disc.
B. The Modern Laplacian Theory

French astronomer and mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace first suggested in 1796 that
the Sun and the planets formed in a rotating nebula which cooled and collapsed. The theory
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argued that this nebula condensed into rings, which eventually formed the planets and a central
mass - the Sun. The slow spin of the Sun could not be explained.
The modern version assumes that the central condensation contains solid dust grains which
create drag in the gas as the center condenses. Eventually, after the core has been slowed, its
temperature rises and the dust evaporates. The slowly rotating core becomes the Sun. The
planets form from the faster rotating cloud.
C. Capture Theory
The Sun interacts with a nearby protostar, dragging a filament of material from the
protostar. The low rotation speed of the Sun is explained as being due to its formation before the
planets, the terrestrial planets are explained by collisions between the protoplanets close to the
Sun, and the giant planets and their satellites are explained as condensations in the drawn-out
filament.
D. Planetesimal Theory
The planetesimal theory describes the formation of the planets as asserted in nebular
hypothesis. Planets were formed from the accretion of small space bodies. The gravity of the
space attracted space objects until the effect of their gravity.
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. How did the universe start based on the Creationist Theory?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Why is the Big Bang Theory the most accepted theory about the origin of the universe?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. If you are to formulate your own theory about the origin of the universe, how would you explain it?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
4. Complete the statement. Choose only one.

A. I do not believe in any theory about the origin of the universe because…
B. I believe in the ______________________________ theory because…
Lesson 2: Earth’s subsystems
Planet Earth is made up of four overlapping systems that contain all of world’s land masses, water
sources, living organisms, and gases. These four systems are known as spheres. Three of these
spheres are abiotic and one sphere is biotic.
Geographers break down the Earth’s systems into four spheres that make up the world’s air
(atmosphere), water (hydrosphere), land (geosphere), and living organisms (biosphere). In this
breakdown, all of the Earth’s water is included in the hydrosphere. This includes surface water
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(such as rivers, lakes, and oceans), water in the ground, ice and snow, and water in the
atmosphere in the form of water vapor.
Atmosphere
The Earth’s atmosphere is the gaseous layer that envelopes the world. This layer mostly contains
a mixture of mostly nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), and argon (0.9%). In addition, trace gases
(carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, methane, and ozone)
account for another tenth of a percent. Water vapor, dust
particles, pollutants, and pollen also can be found in mixed
into the atmosphere. Atmospheric gases work together to
keep the global temperatures within livable limits, shield
the surface of Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation from
the sun, and allow living things to thrive.
Hydrosphere
All of the water on Earth is known collectively as the
Earth’s hydrosphere. Water is found in all three states on
Earth. As water vapor in the atmosphere, as liquid in such as in streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, and
oceans, and as ice and snow. Although liquid water is present around the globe, the vast majority
of the water on Earth, a whopping 96.5 percent, is saline (salty). All of the liquid water on Earth,
both fresh and salt, makes up the hydrosphere, but it is also part of other spheres. For instance,
water vapor in the atmosphere is also considered to be part of the hydrosphere. Ice, being frozen
water, is part of the hydrosphere, but it is given its own name, the cryosphere. Rivers and lakes
may appear to be more common than are glaciers and icebergs, but around three-quarters of all
the fresh water on Earth is locked up in the cryosphere.
The Geosphere
Since 'geo' means 'ground,' the geosphere describes
all of the rocks, minerals and ground that are found on
and in Earth. This includes all of the mountains on the
surface, as well as all of the liquid rock in the mantle
below us and the minerals and metals of the outer
and inner cores. The continents, the ocean floor, all of
the rocks on the surface, and all of the sand in the
deserts are all considered part of the geosphere.
Basically, if it looks like solid ground, it's part of the
'ground' sphere.
Biosphere
The biosphere covers all living organisms on Earth. There is an estimated 20 million to 100 million
different species in the world organized into 100 phyla that make up the five kingdoms of life
forms. These organisms can be found in almost all parts of the geosphere. There are organisms in
the air, soil, and water on Earth. The biosphere refers to the relatively small part of Earth’s
environment in which living things can survive. It contains a wide range of organisms, including
fungi, plants, and animals, that live together as a community. Biologists and ecologists refer to this
variety of life as biodiversity. All the living things in an environment are called its biotic factors. The
biosphere also includes abiotic factors, the nonliving things that organisms require to survive, such
as water, air, and light.
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Lesson 3: Internal Structure of the Earth
The Composition and Structure of Earth

Core, mantle, and crust are division based on
composition. The crust makes up less than 1
percent of Earth by mass, consisting of oceanic
crust and continental crust is often more felsic
rock. The mantle is hot and represents about 68
percent of Earth’s mass. Finally, the core is mostly
iron metal. The core makes up about 31% of the
Earth. Lithosphere and asthenosphere are
divisions based on mechanical properties.
The lithosphere is composed of both the crust and

the portion of the upper mantle that behaves as a
brittle, rigid solid. The asthenosphere is partially
molten upper mantle material that behaves
plastically and can flow.
Crust
Earth’s outer surface is its crust; a cold, thin, brittle outer shell made of rock. The crust is very thin,
relative to the radius of the planet. There are two very different types of crust, each with its own
distinctive physical and chemical properties. Oceanic crust is composed of magma that erupts on
the seafloor. While continental crust is made up of many different types of igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary rocks. The average composition is granite, which is much less dense than the
mafic igneous rocks of the oceanic crust. Because it is thick and has relatively low density,
continental crust rises higher on the mantle than oceanic crust. The lithosphere is the outermost
mechanical layer, which behaves as a brittle, rigid solid. The lithosphere is about 100 kilometers
thick. The definition of the lithosphere is based on how earth materials behave, so it includes the
crust and the uppermost mantle, which are both brittle. Since it is rigid and brittle, when stresses
act on the lithosphere, it breaks. This is what we experience as an earthquake.
Mantle
The mantle is the mostly-solid bulk of Earth’s interior. The mantle lies between Earth’s dense,
super-heated core and its thin outer layer, the crust. The properties fit the ultramafic rock
peridotite, which is made of the iron- and magnesium-rich silicate minerals. Mantle
convection describes the movement of the mantle as it transfers heat from the white-hot core to
the brittle lithosphere. The mantle is
heated from below, cooled from above, and its overall temperature decreases over long periods of
time. All these elements contribute to mantle convection.
Convection currents transfer hot, buoyant magma to the lithosphere at plate boundaries and hot
spots. Convection currents also transfer denser, cooler material from the crust to Earth’s interior
through the process of subduction.
Earth's heat budget, which measures the flow of thermal energy from the core to the atmosphere,
is dominated by mantle convection. Earth’s heat budget drives most geologic processes on Earth,
although its energy output is dwarfed by solar radiation at the surface.
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Core
Earth’s core is the very hot, very dense center of our planet. The ball-shaped core lies beneath the
cool, brittle crust and the mostly-solid mantle. The core is found about 2,900 kilometers (1,802
miles) below Earth’s surface, and has a radius of about 3,485 kilometers (2,165 miles).
Earth’s core is the furnace of the geothermal gradient. The geothermal gradient measures the
increase of heat and pressure in Earth’s interior. The geothermal gradient is about 25° Celsius per
kilometer of depth (1° Fahrenheit per 70 feet). The primary contributors to heat in the core are the
decay of radioactive elements, leftover heat from planetary formation, and heat released as the
liquid
outer core solidifies near its boundary with the inner core. Unlike the mineral-rich crust and mantle,
the core is made almost entirely of metal—specifically, iron and nickel.
A. Make an illustration showing the Earth’s subsystems. Describe briefly each subsystem.
B. Examine how unique Earth is together with its perfect position in the solar system that enables
it to support life. Make a synopsis of your findings.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to;
1. differentiate the three types of rocks;
2. describe the different physical properties of rock-forming minerals; and
3. explain how rocks are being formed.
LEARNING CONTENT
Lesson 4: The Three Types of Rocks
▪ Igneous — they form from the cooling of magma deep inside the earth. They often have
large crystals (you can see them with the naked eye).
▪ Metamorphic — they are formed through the change (metamorphosis) of igneous and
sedimentary rocks. They can form both underground and at the surface.
▪ Sedimentary — they are formed through the solidification of sediment. They can be formed
from organic remains (such as limestone), or from the cementing of other rocks.
What are igneous rocks?

Igneous rocks (from the Greek word for fire) form when
hot, molten rock crystallizes and solidifies. The melt
originates deep within the Earth near active plate
boundaries or hot spots, then rises toward the surface.
Igneous rocks are divided into two groups, intrusive or
extrusive, depending upon where the molten rock
solidifies.
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Intrusive Igneous Rocks:
Intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rock forms when magma is trapped deep inside the Earth. Great
globs of molten rock rise toward the surface. Some of the magma may feed volcanoes on the
Earth's surface, but most remains trapped below, where it cools very slowly over many thousands
or millions of years until it solidifies. Slow cooling means the individual mineral grains have a very
long time to grow, so they grow to a relatively large size. Intrusive rocks have a coarse-grained
texture.
Extrusive Igneous Rocks:

Extrusive, or volcanic, igneous rock is produced when magma exits and cools above (or very near)
the Earth's surface. These are the rocks that form at erupting volcanoes and oozing fissures. The
magma, called lava when molten rock erupts on the surface, cools and solidifies almost instantly
when it is exposed to the relatively cool temperature of the atmosphere. Quick cooling means that
mineral crystals don't have much time to grow, so these rocks have a very fine-grained or even
glassy texture. Hot gas bubbles are often trapped in the quenched lava, forming a bubbly,
vesicular texture.
Common examples of igneous rocks are andesite, basalt, dacite, dolerite (also called diabase),
gabbro, diorite, peridotite, scoria, tuff, and volcanic bomb
What are metamorphic rocks?

Metamorphic rocks started out as some other type of rock, but have been substantially changed
from their original igneous, sedimentary, or earlier metamorphic form. Metamorphic rocks form
when rocks are subjected to high heat, high pressure, hot mineral-rich fluids or, more commonly,
some combination of these factors. Conditions like these are found deep within the Earth or where
tectonic plates meet.
Process of Metamorphism:
The process of metamorphism does not melt the rocks, but instead transforms them into denser,
more compact rocks. New minerals are created either by rearrangement of mineral components or
by reactions with fluids that enter the rocks. Pressure or temperature can even change previously
metamorphosed rocks into new types. Metamorphic rocks are often squished, smeared out, and
folded. Despite these uncomfortable conditions, metamorphic rocks do not get hot enough to melt,
or they would become igneous rocks!
There are two types of metamorphism (change) that can cause this:
▪ contact metamorphism (or thermal metamorphism) — rocks are so close to magma that
they start to partially melt and change their properties. You can have recrystallization,
fusing between crystals and a lot of other chemical reactions. Temperature is the main
driver here.
▪
▪ Regional metamorphism (or dynamic metamorphism) — this typically happens when
rocks are deep underground and they are subjected to massive pressure — so much so
that they often become elongated, destroying the original features. Pressure (often times
with temperature) is the main driver here.
Common metamorphic rocks include phyllite, schist, gneiss, quartzite and marble.
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Foliated Metamorphic Rocks:
Some kinds of metamorphic rocks -- granite gneiss and
biotite schist are two examples -- are strongly banded or
foliated. (Foliated means the parallel arrangement of
certain mineral grains that gives the rock a striped
appearance.) Foliation forms when pressure squeezes
the flat or elongate minerals within a rock so they
become aligned. These rocks develop a platy or sheet-
like structure that reflects the direction that pressure was
applied.
Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks:

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not have a platy or sheet-like structure. There are several
ways that non-foliated rocks can be produced. Some rocks, such as limestone are made of
minerals that are not flat or elongate. No matter how much pressure you apply, the grains will not
align! Another type of metamorphism, contact metamorphism, occurs when hot igneous rock
intrudes into some pre-existing rock. The pre-existing rock is essentially baked by the heat,
changing the mineral structure of the rock without addition of pressure.
What are sedimentary rocks?

Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks
or pieces of once-living organisms. They form from
deposits that accumulate on the Earth's surface.
Sedimentary rocks often have distinctive layering or
bedding. Many of the picturesque views of the desert
southwest show mesas and arches made of layered
sedimentary rock.
Common Sedimentary Rocks:

Common sedimentary rocks include sandstone,
limestone, and shale. These rocks often start as
sediments carried in rivers and deposited in lakes and oceans. When buried, the sediments lose
water and become cemented to form rock. Tophaceous sandstones contain volcanic ash.
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks:

Clastic sedimentary rocks are the group of rocks most people think of when they think of
sedimentary rocks. Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of pieces (clasts) of pre-existing rocks.
Pieces of rock are loosened by weathering, then transported to some basin or depression where
sediment is trapped. If the sediment is buried deeply, it becomes compacted and cemented,
forming sedimentary rock. Clastic sedimentary rocks may have particles ranging in size from
microscopic clay to huge boulders. Their names are based on their clast or grain size. The
smallest grains are called clay, then silt, then sand. Grains larger than 2 millimeters are called
pebbles. Shale is a rock made mostly of clay, siltstone is made up of silt-sized grains, sandstone is
made of sand-sized clasts, and conglomerate is made of pebbles surrounded by a matrix of sand
or mud.
Biologic Sedimentary Rocks:

Biologic sedimentary rocks form when large numbers of living things die. Chert is an example for
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this type of rock, and this is one of the ways limestone can form. Limestone can also form by
precipitating out of the water.
Common sedimentary rocks include argillite, breccia, chalk, chert, claystone, coal, conglomerate,
dolomite, limestone, gypsum, greywacke, mudstone, shale, siltstone and turbidite
Rock-forming Minerals
Rocks are composed of minerals. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance which is usually
solid, crystalline, stable at room temperature and inorganic.
There are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet the vast majority of rocks are formed from
combinations of a few common minerals, referred to as “rock-forming minerals”. The rock-forming
minerals are: feldspars, quartz, amphiboles, micas, olivine, garnet, calcite, pyroxenes.
Minerals occurring within a rock in small quantities are referred to as “accessory minerals”.
Although accessory minerals are present in only small amounts, they may provide valuable insight
into the geological history of a rock, and are often used to ascertain the age of a rock. Common
accessory minerals are: zircon, monazite, apatite, titanite, tourmaline, pyrite and other opaque.
Physical properties of minerals

Some minerals are easily identifiable; others can only be recognized only by the use of a
petrographic microscope or by complex analytical techniques. The following criteria are used to
differentiate minerals in hand sample. Most minerals cannot be identified from one particular
property, and so it is advisable to use several of the diagnostic criteria outlined below. A hand lens
will assist you greatly.
Color
Color is one of the most obvious characteristics of a mineral, but generally not the most useful
diagnostic feature. Depending on impurities, individual mineral types may come in a vast variety of
colors. For example, ruby and sapphire are differently colored types of the mineral corundum. The
red color of ruby is due to the presence of the element chromium. Sapphires may come is a vast
variety of colors; blue is the most familiar color, but yellow, orange, green, pink, orange and brown
varieties are also known. Garnets may also come in a large range of colors, depending on their
composition.
Crystal habit
Crystal habit refers to the characteristic shape of a mineral unit (either an individual crystal or an
aggregate of crystals). Crystals with well-developed faces are referred to as “euhedral”; for
example, garnet crystals are often euhedral. Minerals may also occur as aggregates of crystals;
for example, asbestos is usually found as an aggregate of very fine fibers. The following list gives
examples of different crystal habits and examples of common minerals that may exhibit each
habit.
Hardness
Hardness is a measure of how resistant a mineral is to scratching. This physical property is
controlled by the chemical composition and structure of the mineral. Hardness is commonly
measured on the Mohs scale. This is defined by ten minerals, where each mineral can scratch
those with a lower scale number. Diamond (hardness 10) can scratch everything below it on the
Mohs scale, but cannot itself be scratched, whereas quartz (hardness 5) can scratch calcite
(hardness 3) but not corundum (hardness 9).
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Streak
The streak of a mineral refers to the color of the mark it leaves behind after being rubbed against a
piece of unglazed porcelain. Hematite provides a good example of how streak works. While this
mineral is usually black, silver or brown-red in hand sample, its streak is always a dark blood-red.
Chalcopyrite is usually golden-brown in hand sample, but has a green-black streak. Streak can be
used only for minerals with a Mohs hardness of 7 or less, as minerals with a hardness greater than
7 will themselves scratch the streak plate.
Luster
Luster refers to the way in which the surface of a mineral reflects light, and is controlled by the
kinds of atoms present and their bonding=
Cleavage
Minerals are composed of atoms, which, for each mineral, have a characteristic arrangement.
Weaknesses in the chemical bonds between these atoms cause planes of weakness in the crystal
structure. Cleavage is an indication of how well a mineral break along these planes of weakness,
and may be a good diagnostic characteristic. Cleavage may be described as “perfect”,” good”,
“distinct” or “poor”. In transparent minerals or in thin sections viewed though a microscope,
cleavage may be seen as a series of parallel lines.
A. Draw and discuss the rock cycle.

B. Using an organizational chart, describe the types of rocks.
C. Answer the following questions briefly.
1. Why does streak test work only on minerals softer that porcelain
2. What is the largest group of rock-forming minerals? Name the others.
3. How can you help in conserving some common minerals?
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. differentiate the different geologic processes;
2. analyze how geologic processes affect different materials; and
3. explain the process of magma formation.
LEARNING CONTENT
Lesson 5: Geological Processes
Geological processes are events that occur on a geological timescale ranging between millions of
centuries, hundreds of meters, and thousands of kilometers.
What are Exogenic Forces?

• The forces which derive their strength from the earth’s exterior or originate within the earth’s
atmosphere are called as exogenic forces or external forces.
• The action of exogenic forces results in wearing down and hence they are considered
as land wearing forces.
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Exogenic Processes or Denudation
• The processes which occur on earth’s surface due to the influence of exogenic forces are
called as exogenic processes or exogenic geomorphic processes.
• Weathering, mass wasting, erosion, and deposition are the main exogenic processes.
• All the exogenic processes are covered under a general term- denudation, which means
strip off or uncover.
• The elements of nature capable of doing these exogenic processes are termed as
geomorphic agents (or exogenic geomorphic agents). E.g. the wind, water, waves etc.
Weathering
• Weathering is the action of elements of weather and climate over earth material.
• It can be defined mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks through
the actions of various elements of weather and climate.
• When rocks undergo weathering, some minerals are removed through chemical/ physical
leaching by ground water and thereby the concentration of remaining (valuable) minerals
increase.
• Weathering can be classified as – physical, chemical and biological:
Physical / Mechanical weathering

• Physical or mechanical weathering processes
depend on some applied forces.
• The applied forces could be: (i) gravitational forces
such as overburden pressure, load, and shearing
stress; (ii) expansion force due to temperature
changes, crystal growth or animal activity; (iii)
water pressure controlled by wetting and drying
cycles.
• Causes: Most of the physical weathering are caused by thermal expansion and pressure.
Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering can be due to solution, carbonation, hydration or oxidation/reduction.
A) SOLUTION:
• When something is dissolved in water or acids, the water or acid with dissolved content is
called as a solution.
• This process involves removal of
solids in solution and depends upon
the solubility of a mineral in water or
weak acids.
• When coming contact with water,
many solids disintegrate and mix up
as a suspension in water.
• Soluble rock forming minerals like
nitrates, sulphates, potassium etc. are
affected by this process.
• This kind of weathering mainly occurs
in a rainy
• Minerals like calcium carbonate and
magnesium bicarbonate present in limestone are soluble in water containing carbonic acid
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(formed with the addition of carbon dioxide in water) and are carried away in water as a
solution.
• Common salt is also a rock forming mineral and is susceptible to this process of solution.
B) CARBONATION:
• Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals and is common
process helping to break down of feldspar and carbonate minerals.
• Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and soil air is absorbed by water to form carbonic acid
that acts as a weak acid.
• Calcium carbonates and magnesium carbonates are dissolved in carbonic acid and are
removed in a solution without leaving any residue resulting in cave formation.
C) HYDRATION:
• Hydration is the chemical addition of water.
• Minerals take up water and expand; this expansion causes an increase in the volume of the
material itself or rock.
• The process is reversible and long, continued repetition of this process causes fatigue in
the rocks and may lead to their disintegration.
• g. calcium sulphate takes in water and turns to gypsum, which is more unstable than
calcium sulphate.
D) OXIDATION AND REDUCTION:
• In weathering, oxidation means a combination of a mineral with oxygen to form oxides or
hydroxides.
• Minerals most commonly involved in this are iron, manganese, sulfur etc.
• The red color of the iron upon oxidation turns to brown and yellow.
• In this process of oxidation, rock breakdown occurs due to the disturbance caused by the
addition of oxygen.
• When oxidized minerals are placed in an environment where oxygen is absent, reduction
takes place.
Biological weathering
• This kind of weathering is caused by several biological activities like growth or movements
of organisms.
• They also bring conditions for physical or chemical weathering.
• Grazing of animals, ploughing by human beings etc. are examples of biological weathering.
Mass Movements
• These movements transfer the mass of
rock debris down the slope under
the direct influence of gravity.
• Mass movements are very active over
weathered slopes rather than over
unweather slopes.
• Usual geographic agents like running
water, glaciers, wind, waves etc. do not
have much role to play in mass
movements, and it is the gravity,
which is the main driving force.
• Mass movements are classified into slow
movements and rapid movements.
Slow movements:
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A) CREEP:
It occurs on moderate steep, soil-covered slopes (doesn’t need to be lubricated with water. The
movement is extremely slow and imperceptible except through extended observation. We might
notice that some of the electric posts in our region which are posted in sloppy areas deviated from
their horizontal linearity. This is an effect of creep.
B) SOLIFLUCTION:
It is the process of slow downslope flowing of soil mass or fine-grained rock debris saturated
or lubricated with water. It can be said as a type of creep with lubricated water influences the
movement. It mainly occurs in permafrost regions as the layers of ground water are occupied in
between permanently frozen soil and rocks.
Rapid movements
A) EARTHFLOW:
Movement of water-saturated clayey or silty earth materials down low angle terraces or hillsides is
called earthflow
B) MUDFLOW:
In the absence of vegetation and cover and with heavy rainfall, thick layers of weathered materials
get saturated with water and either slow or rapidly flow down along definite channels is called as
mudflow.
C) DEBRIS AVALANCHE:
It is more in humid regions with or without vegetation. It occurs in narrow tracks on sleep slopes
and is similar to snow avalanche.
LANDSLIDES
In landslides, the materials involved are relatively dry irrespective of the above said rapid mass
movements. Landslides can be classified into slump, debris slide, rock slide etc.
• Slump: It is a type of landslide in which slipping of several units of rock debris occurs with a
backward rotation with respect to the slope over which the movement takes place.
• Debris slide: In this type of landslide, there is no backward rotation. The fall is almost
vertical.
• Rock slide: It is nothing but the slide of individual rock masses.
Erosion and Deposition

• Erosion is the acquisition and transportation of rock debris by geomorphic agents like
running water, the wind, waves etc.
• Though weathering aids erosion, it is not a pre-condition for erosion to takes place.
• Deposition is a consequence of erosion. The erosional agents lose their velocity and energy
on gentle slopes and materials carried by them start to settle themselves.
• Note: Deposition is not the work of any agents. It is just the end result of erosion.
Sedimentation, in the geological sciences, process of deposition of a solid material from a state
of suspension or solution in a fluid (usually air or water). Broadly defined it also includes deposits
from glacial ice and those materials collected under the impetus of gravity alone, as in talus
deposits, or accumulations of rock debris at the base of cliffs.
How magma forms

Magma is a molten and semi-molten rock mixture found under the surface of the Earth. This
mixture is usually made up of four parts: a hot liquid base, called the melt; minerals crystallized by
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the melt; solid rocks incorporated into the melt from the surrounding confines;
and dissolved gases.
When magma is ejected by a volcano or other vent, the material is called lava. Magma that has
cooled into a solid is called igneous rock.
Earth is divided into three general layers. The core is the superheated center, the mantle is the
thick, middle layer, and the crust is the top layer on which we live.
Magma originates in the lower part of the Earth’s crust and in the upper portion of the mantle. Most
of the mantle and crust are solid, so the presence of magma is crucial to understanding
the geology and morphology of the mantle.
Differences in temperature, pressure, and structural formations in the mantle and crust cause
magma to form in different ways.
Decompression Melting
Decompression melting involves the upward movement of Earth's mostly-solid mantle. This hot
material rises to an area of lower pressure through the process of convection. Areas of lower
pressure always have a lower melting point than areas of high pressure. This reduction in
overlying pressure, or decompression, enables the mantle rock to melt and form magma.
Transfer of Heat
Magma can also be created when hot, liquid rock intrudes into Earth’s cold crust. As the liquid rock
solidifies, it loses its heat to the surrounding crust. Much like hot fudge being poured over cold ice
cream, this transfer of heat is able to melt the surrounding rock (the “ice cream”) into magma.
Flux Melting
Flux melting occurs when water or carbon dioxide are added to rock. These compounds cause the
rock to melt at lower temperatures. This creates magma in places where it originally maintained a
solid structure.
Types of Magma
All magma contains gases and a mixture of simple elements. Being that oxygen and silicon are the
most abundant elements in magma, geologists define magma types in terms of their silica content,
expressed as SiO2. These differences in chemical composition are directly related to differences in
gas content, temperature, and viscosity.
Mafic Magma
Mafic magma has relatively low silica content, roughly 50%, and higher contents in iron and
magnesium. This type of magma has a low gas content and low viscosity, or resistance to flow.
Mafic magma also has high mean temperatures, between 1000o and 2000o Celsius (1832o and
3632o Fahrenheit), which contributes to its lower viscosity.
Intermediate Magma
Intermediate magma has higher silica content (roughly 60%) than mafic magma. This results in a
higher gas content and viscosity. Its mean temperature ranges from 800o to 1000o Celsius
(1472o to 1832o Fahrenheit).
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Felsic Magma
Felsic magma has the highest silica content of all magma types, between 65-70%. As a result,
felsic magma also has the highest gas content and viscosity, and lowest mean temperatures,
between 650o and 800o Celsius (1202o and 1472o Fahrenheit).
A. Answer the following questions briefly.

1. Differentiate the three types of magma.
2. Explain the role of geologic processes on Earth.
3. Elaborate the processes that contribute to the formation of magma.
B. Make a write-up article about places in the Philippines that are affected by mass wasting.
Determine other factors that contribute to the downslope soil movement of the area.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. identify the different methods in determining the age of rocks;
2. interpret the Earth’s geological time scale; and
3. explain the concept of plate tectonics.
LEARNING CONTENT
Lesson 6: History of Earth and Plate Tectonic
HISTORY OF THE EARTH

Geologists are scientists who study the structure of rocks and the history of the earth. By looking at and
examining layers of rocks and the fossils they contain they are able to tell us what the earth looked like at a
certain time in history and what kind of plants and animals lived at that time.
There are two main methods determining a fossils age, relative dating and absolute dating. Relative dating
is used to determine a fossils approximate age by comparing it to similar rocks and fossils of known ages.
Absolute dating is used to determine a precise age of a fossil by using radiometric dating to measure the
decay of isotopes, either within the fossil or more often the rocks associated with it.
Relative Dating
The majority of the time fossils are dated using relative dating techniques. Using relative dating the fossil is
compared to something for which an age is already known.
For example, if you have a fossil trilobite and it was found in the Wheeler Formation. The Wheeler
Formation has been previously dated to approximately 507-million-year-old, so we know the trilobite is also
about 507 million years old. But, how can we determine how old a rock formation is, if it hasn’t previously
been dated?
Scientists can use certain types of fossils referred to as index fossils to assist in relative dating via
correlation. Index fossils are fossils that are known to only occur within a very specific age range. Typically,
common occurring fossils that had a widespread geographic distribution such as brachiopods, trilobites,
and ammonites work best as index fossils. If the fossil you are trying to date occurs alongside one of these
index fossils, then the fossil you are dating must fall into the age range of the index fossil.
Studying the layers of rock or strata can also be useful. Layers of rock are deposited sequentially. This can
often be complicated by the fact that geological forces can cause faulting and tilting of rocks.
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Absolute Dating
Absolute dating is used to determine a precise age of a rock or fossil through radiometric dating methods.
This uses radioactive minerals that occur in rocks and fossils almost like a geological clock. It’s often much
easier to date volcanic rocks than the fossils themselves or the sedimentary rocks they are found in. So,
often layers of volcanic rocks above and below the layers containing fossils can be dated to provide a date
range for the fossil containing rocks.
The atoms in some chemical elements have different forms, called isotopes. These isotopes break down at
a constant rate over time through radioactive decay. By measuring the ratio of the amount of the original
(parent) isotope to the amount of the (daughter) isotopes that it breaks down into an age can be
determined.
We define the rate of this radioactive decay in half-lives. If a radioactive isotope is said to have a half-life of
5,000 years that means after 5,000 years exactly half of it will have decayed from the parent isotope into
the daughter isotopes. Then after another 5,000 years half of the remaining parent isotope will have
decayed.
Earth’s Geological Time
THE PRECAMBRIAN TIME
The oldest period of the earth’s history lasted from the beginnings four and a half billion years ago to about
600 million years ago. At first simple forms of one-celled life developed in the oceans. Later on, bacteria
and algae evolved. Towards the middle of the Precambrian, about 2 billion years ago, more complex
organisms, sponge-like creatures and soft-bodied animals lived in the seas. During this time there was no
life on land because there was not enough oxygen to breathe.
As the Precambrian came to an end the oceans were full of life. Plants started absorbing the carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and turned it into oxygen. Early continents formed, but they looked quite
different than they do today.
THE PALEOZOIC ERA
The Paleozoic Era lasted from about 600 million to about 240 million years ago. Geologists divide this era
into six periods. From the earliest to the latest these are the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous and the Permian.
Although most animals and plants still lived in the oceans, life started to develop on land and by the end of
this era there was life in both the sea and on land. The earliest living things on land were simple plants and
mosses, the first creatures to appear on land were animals that looked like spiders, scorpions and insects.
The middle of the era was dominated by all sorts of fish and invertebrates. Early amphibians, animals that
could live on land and in the water, appeared. During the Carboniferous period the first reptiles evolved and
insects grew to an enormous size.
The end of the era was the time of big forests and swamps. The earth got hot and wet. Plants and big trees
died and were buried in sediments.
Over millions of years they turned into gigantic coal deposits which we find in the eastern United States,
Europe, Russia and China.
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During the Paleozoic era the land masses were constantly moving and by the end of the era they joined
together to become a single continent called Pangaea. As these land masses collided several mountain
chains, like the Appalachian and Ural Mountains emerged.
THE MESOZOIC ERA

The Mesozoic era lasted from about 240 million to about 65 million years ago. At the end of the Paleozoic
about 90 % of all living creatures on earth died out. We don’t really know what caused this to happen but
many scientists think that our climate started to change dramatically. Maybe a big volcanic eruption thrust
gas into the earth’s atmosphere or maybe a large asteroid hit the earth and dust blocked out sunlight for
many years.
The Mesozoic era is often called the age of dinosaurs because they dominated the earth’s landmasses.
Reptiles were the most powerful and fearsome creatures of that time. The archaeopteryx was a flying
reptile, probably the first bird on earth. Some dinosaurs like the Tyrannosaurus Rex were meat eating
predators; others only ate plants and leaves. The 30-meter-long brontosaurus was the largest land animal
that ever lived. During the Mesozoic era the first mammals also appeared on earth but they were very small
and could not match the size and greatness of dinosaurs.
In this era Pangaea started breaking up and land masses formed the continents we know today. They
started moving in all directions. By the end of the Mesozoic era South America had separated from Africa;
Australia and Antarctica were one continent and North America had started to move away from Eurasia.
Just like the Paleozoic era before it, the Mesozoic also ended abruptly. About 65 million years ago 75 per
cent of all animals on earth, including the dinosaurs died out. Geologists are pretty sure that a large
asteroid hit Mexico and sent dust into the atmosphere that blocked out sunlight for years. It killed off many
plants and animals could not survive without food.
THE CENOZOIC ERA
The Cenozoic era started about 65 million years ago and continues on into the present. It is divided into the
Tertiary period which ended about 1.8 million years ago and Quaternary period.
After the death of the dinosaurs and other reptiles’ mammals started to dominate life on earth. In the early
Cenozoic era horses, rhinoceroses, pigs, camels, deer and cattle started to evolve. As time went on
mammals got bigger and bigger. Elephants and mammoths roamed the plains and forests.
About 2 to 4 million years ago apelike creatures lived in Africa. Apes that looked like humans appeared 2
million years ago, but the first real humans came to earth much later, maybe even less than 200 000 years
ago.
During the Cenozoic era continents continued to move and crash into each other. Layers of rock folded and
moved upward. During this era the biggest mountains of the world, the Alps, Himalayas, Rocky Mountains
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and Andes have taken shape. In the last 2 million years large parts of the earth have been covered by huge
ice sheets. In four Ice Ages, which were separated by warmer periods, glaciers moved across the northern
hemisphere. The surface of the seas sank by
about 100 meters and turned many shallow
parts of the oceans, like the North Sea, into land.
Great Britain, for example, was a part of the
European mainland and became an island when
the ice melted about 20,000 years ago. The
glaciers built up huge deposits of rock and
reshaped mountains and valleys into today’s
form. On the southern continents it rained a lot
and turned these areas, like the Sahara Desert,
into green forests and grasslands.
Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer shell is divided into several plates that glide over the mantle,
the rocky inner layer above the core. The plates act like a hard and rigid shell compared to Earth's mantle.
This strong outer layer is called the lithosphere, which is 100 km (60 miles) thick, according to
Encyclopedia Britannica. The lithosphere includes the crust and outer part of the mantle. Below the
lithosphere is the asthenosphere, which is malleable or partially malleable, allowing the lithosphere to move
around. How it moves around is an evolving idea.
Developed from the 1950s through the 1970s, plate tectonics is the modern version of continental drift, a
theory first proposed by scientist Alfred Wegener in 1912. Wegener didn't have an explanation for how
continents could move around the planet, but researchers do now. Plate tectonics is the unifying theory of
geology, said Nicholas van der Elst, a seismologist at Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth
Observatory in Palisades, New York.
There are nine major plates, according to World Atlas. These plates are named after the landforms found
on them. The nine major plates are North American, Pacific, Eurasian, African, Indo-Australian, Australian,
Indian, South American and Antarctic.
The largest plate is the Pacific Plate at 39,768,522 square miles (103,000,000 square kilometers). Most of it
is located under the ocean. It is moving northwest at a speed of around 2.75 inches (7 cm) per year.
The driving force behind plate tectonics is convection in the mantle. Hot material near the Earth's core
rises, and colder mantle rock sinks. "It's kind of like a pot boiling on a stove," Van der Elst said. The
convection drive plates tectonics through a combination of pushing and spreading apart at mid-ocean
ridges and pulling and sinking downward at subduction zones, researchers think. Scientists continue to
study and debate the mechanisms that move the plates.
Mid-ocean ridges are gaps between tectonic plates that mantle the Earth like seams on a baseball. Hot
magma wells up at the ridges, forming new ocean crust and shoving the plates apart. At subduction zones,
two tectonic plates meet and one slides beneath the other back into the mantle, the layer underneath the
crust. The cold, sinking plate pulls the crust behind it downward.
Many spectacular volcanoes are found along subduction zones, such as the "Ring of Fire" that surrounds
the Pacific Ocean.
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A. Make a schematic diagram of the geologic history of the Earth and note the important events.
B. Answer the following questions briefly
1. How do relative dating and absolute dating helps in identifying Earth’s geological time?
2. Differentiate relative dating from absolute dating.
3. What is plate tectonic theory all about?
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. distinguish the different movements of the Earth’s crust;
2. elaborate how the movement of plate leads to the formation of folds and faults; and
3. classify the different types of folds and faults.
LEARNING CONTENT
Lesson 7: Movement of the Plate Tectonic
TYPES OF FAULTS ASSOCIATED WITH PLATE BOUNDARIES

Normal faults are most common at divergent plate
boundaries, Strike-slip faults are most common at
transform boundaries, and thrust faults are most
commonly seen at convergent plate boundaries.
Divergent plate boundaries

Divergent plate boundaries are boundaries where two plates
are moving away from each other. This creates a rift were magma
rises from the mantle and is expelled onto the Earth's surface.
Most divergent boundaries occur as mid-ocean ridges, but some can be rift valleys within continents.
Normal faults are commonly found at mid-ocean ridges and divergent plate boundaries. These normal
faults create a series of horsts and grabens, otherwise known as basins and ranges.
The Basin and Range Province is a series of horsts and grabens that has resulted from millions of years of
crustal extension (the pulling apart of the Earth's surface).
Transform plate boundaries

Transform plate boundaries occur where two plates slide past one another. These are characterized by
strike-slip faulting and earthquakes are a common occurrence along this type of boundary.
The San Andreas Fault is an excellent example of a strike-slip fault and a transform plate boundary.
Convergent plate boundaries

Convergent plate boundaries are plate boundaries where two plates move toward each other. This type of
boundary deforms the crust on one or both plate edges.
Subduction Zones
Common features associated with subduction zones include an oceanic trench, an accretionary wedge, a
volcanic arc, and a back-arc basin. Graphic: NBMG
Subduction zones are the result of two plates, one oceanic and one continental, coming together. The
denser oceanic plate subducts beneath the more buoyant continental plate. These plate boundaries are
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characterized by a chain of volcanoes inland from the subduction zone. Thrust faulting is common among
these plate boundaries, and large earthquakes are possible.
The Cascadia subduction zone and Cascade Mountains are excellent examples of a subduction zone and
associated volcanic chain. Continental collisions occur when two continental plates collide and neither will
subduct beneath the other (both are composed of less-dense continental crust). Thrust faulting is common
at this type of boundary and these collisions result in mountain-building, or “orogenesis”.
The Himalayas are the result of an ongoing continental collision where the Indian and Eurasian plate are
coming together. The Appalachian Mountains are an ancient mountain range that was formed from a
continental collision. The Anti-Atlas Mountains in Morocco were part of the Appalachians when they were
first formed. The mid-Atlantic ridge, a divergent plate boundary, has since separated them.
FOLDS
Folds occur when originally flat and
planar surfaces are bent or curved as
a result of forces of deformation.
Folds in rocks vary in size from
microscopic crinkles to mountain-
sized folds.
Anticline
Anticlines are arch shaped (convex
upward) folds where the oldest beds
are at the core (center). Anticlines can be recognized by a sequence of rock layers that become
progressively older toward the center of the fold.
Syncline
Synclines are concave upward folds where the youngest beds are at the core. Synclines can be recognized
by a sequence of rock layers that become progressively younger toward the center of the fold.
Monocline
A monocline is a single-limbed bend or step-like fold in rock strata that displays a zone of steeper dip within
a horizontal or gently dipping sequence of rock layers. Monoclines are formed from compressional forces
and vertical motions deep within the Earth’s crust.
FAULTS
A fault is a planar fracture in rock across which there has been displacement as a result of movement.
Large faults within the Earth's crust result from crustal movement associated with plate tectonic activity. A
release of energy associated with rapid movement along active faults is the cause of most earthquakes.
Normal Fault
Normal faults occur where two blocks
of rock are pulled apart and the
hanging wall has moved downward
relative to the footwall. If a normal fault
displays a steeply dipping fault
surface, it is called a high angle
normal fault.
Nevada is located within the Basin and

Range Province, a series of mountains
and valleys that are bounded by normal faults. These mountains and valleys, otherwise referred to as
horsts and grabens are formed when extensional forces cause the crust to pull apart. A horst (German for
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heap) is the raised fault block, more commonly known as a mountain or range. It is found together with a
graben (German for grave) which represents a fault block that has lowered relative to the horst.
Reverse Fault
Reverse faults result from compressional forces that push the crust together. They occur when the hanging
wall moves up relative to the foot wall. If a reverse fault displays a fault surface less than 45°, it is called a
thrust fault.
Reverse faults and thrust faults are common along convergent plate boundaries. They are also capable of
producing very large earthquakes.
Gray rocks of the Bonanza King Formation are thrust over the younger red sandstone layers of the
The Keystone Thrust fault in Red Rock National Conservation Area outside of Las Vegas is an excellent
example of a thrust fault. Here, older limestone rocks of the Bonanza King Formation (Middle to Late
Cambrian, ~514 Ma – 490 Ma) are thrust over younger Aztec Sandstone (Early Jurassic, ~201 Ma - 191
Ma). For more information on the Keystone Thrust fault, check out the Nevada Bureau of Mines and
Geology's story map and virtual hike.
Strike-Slip Faults
Strike-slip faults are vertical (or nearly vertical) fractures where the blocks on either side have moved
horizontally relative to one another. There are two types of strike-slip faults: right lateral and left lateral.
A right lateral strike-slip fault (also known as dextral) occurs when one side of the fault moves to the right
relative to the other side.
The San Andreas Fault is a right lateral strike-slip fault as well as a transform plate boundary.
A left lateral strike-slip fault occurs when one side of the fault moves to the left relative to the other side.
A. Answer the following questions briefly.

1. What are three types of plate boundaries?
2. What causes the formation of folds and faults?
3. How do folded mountains form?
4. Cite some evidences that the Earth’s crust is still continue moving in present time.
5. Make your own illustration of the different types of folds and faults.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. discuss the different geologic and hydrometeorological hazards;
2. identify how to use hazard maps and locate areas prone to the different hazards; and
3. enumerate ways on how to cope with such hazards.
LEARNING CONTENT
Lesson 8: Geologic Processes and Hazards
GEOLOGIC PROCESSES
Geologic processes refer to naturally occurring processes found in the Earth's geosphere. In particular, this
pertains to the formation and transformation of rocks, convection currents in the mantle and their
consequences to seismism and volcanism, tectonics, formation of mountains, etc. In this section, we will
focus on three geological processes which expose people to hazards. These processes are tectonics,
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rnagmatism, and erosion. The hazards they bring are those that pertain to seismism (earthquakes),
volcanism (volcanic activities), and landslides.
A. EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake is the term used to describe any of the following events:
• the sudden slip on a fault, and the resulting shaking of the ground and seismic energy radiated by
that slip
• the ground shaking caused by volcanic or magmatic activity
• the ground shaking caused by other stress on earth above or below ground.
Types of Earthquakes
VOLCANIC- Earthquakes caused by a movement along plate boundaries which is initiated by a volcanic
activity.
COLLAPSE- Small earthquakes in underground caverns and mines due to seismic waves produced by
explosion of rock on the surface.
EXPLOSION- Earthquakes as a result of the detonation of nuclear bomb.
Earthquake Hazards
1. Ground shaking
2. Ground rupture
3. Liquefaction
4. Tsunami
5. Landslide
6. Ground subsidence
WHAT TO DO DURING AN EARTHQUAKE

A. Stay calm. If you are inside a building, stay inside and if you are outside a building, stay outside.
B. If you are indoors, crawl under a sturdy furniture (table or desk) Stay away from windows and doors.
C. If you are outdoors, stay outdoors, away from power lines or anything that might fall. Stay away from
buildings, especially buildings with large glass panes.
D. If you are in a car or jeepney, tell the driver to pull to the side of the road and stop. Stay inside the
vehicle until the earthquake stops.
WHAT TO DO WHEN THE EARTHQUAKE IS OVER

A. Check yourself and anyone for injuries. Apply first aid to those who are injured.
B. Move out of damaged buildings calmly and orderly, proceed to an open space, and stay away from
buildings as far as possible because of the possibility of aftershocks.
C. Watch out for broken glass and debris, and weak structures overhead.
D. Do not return to damaged or partially damaged buildings until after authorities have inspected their
structural integrity.
E. Stay away from power lines, poles, walls, and other structures. Aftershocks can cause them to
tumble down.
F. Do not use elevators. Use the stairs.
G. If the earthquake caused chemical spills or gas leak, call appropriate authorities to clean them up.
Check for fire, and if any is found, have them controlled.
H. Stay away from steep slopes. Aftershocks can still induce landslides.
I. Listen to the news from radio, TV, or announcements from local authorities.
WHAT TO DO IN THE EVENT OF A TSUNAMI ALERT

A. If you are near the beach, move inland to a place with higher elevation.
B. If you are in a multi-story concrete building, go to higher floors and stay there until the tsunami alert
is over.
C. Do not seek refuge in weak and small structures near the beach.
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WHAT TO DO WHEN A TSUNAMI RUSHES
A. When a tsunami is already running in, look for buildings and climb upstairs. Climb to the roof if the
need arises.
B. Climb a hill, a tree, or any elevated structure.
C. Tsunamis do not come as one wave but as series of waves. The rush of sea water that comes
inland will also return to the on sea. Thus, stay in elevated places until the tsunami alert has been
called off with finality.
B. VOLCANIC HAZARDS
Pyroclastic density currents move rapidly and are gravity driven. It a mixture of rock fragments and hot
gases that forms a dense fluid that move along the ground with an upper part that is less dense as particles
fall tower the ground. The movement of the fluid will depend upon the solid concentration relative to gas
ratio. Pyroclastic flows are high concentration density Rows bet non-turbulent and confined only to valleys.
Meanwhile, pyroclastic surges have low concentration density which can travel over hill and valley
Both the pyroclastic flows and surges are considered highly destructive due to their mass, high
temperature, high velocity and great mobility. Some of their effects include asphyxiation, burial, incineration
and crushing from impacts.
Evacuation prior to actual volcanic eruption from areas likely to be affected by these hazards is the only
effective method of risk mitigation.
LAHARS
Lahars are composed of volcanic particles and originate directly or indirectly from volcanic action. It is fluid
composed of mixtures of water and particles of all sizes from clay-size to boulder-slat Lahars can form in
many ways such as:
1. pyroclastic surges or flows which could penetrate our watershed systems or flowing over snow and ice.
2. by eruptions through crater lakes,
3. by heavy rains on loose volcanic debris Lahars can move with velocities as low as 13 m/s to as great as
40 m/s on steep slopes (1 m/s - 2.55 miles per hour). The fastest would be as far a 300 km (1 km -0.63
miles).
Lahar can be destructive because it can be transformed into regular floods as they become increasingly
diluted with water downstream. Just like what happened to Mount St. Helens where hot pyroclastic surges
transformed to lahars, then into hyper concentrated stream flow and then to normal stream flow turbulence
or floods.
DEBRIS-FLOW AVALANCHES
The hazard was observed when Mount St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980 Italy, A relatively small
volcanic earthquake caused the collapse of the north e of the volcano because it was over steepened and
therefore unstable. Hence, when landslide occurred, it decreased the pressure on the pressurized interior o
the volcano which expanded explosively to form a lateral blast that devastated the countryside north of the
volcano. The hilly topography north of Mount Shasta in northern California was formed as a result of a
debris flow avalanches.
LAVA FLOW
Lava flow move slowly so it la considered to be not as destructive compared to other volcanic hazards.
Slide lava flows moves only a few centimeters per hour while basaltic lava flows travel several km/hours.
However, even if they are not really that violent still, there are hazards like the following- burying, crushing,
covering, burning everything in their path, melts ice and snow resulting to floods and lahars. Lava flows in
rivers and lakes might overflow and break their dams causing floods. Therefore, some effective methods for
controlling path of lava flows are construct barriers and diversion channels, cool branding front with water,
and disruption of source or advancing front of lava flow by explosives.
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VOLCANIC GAS
Volcanic gases smell bad and harmful that causes mass fatalities The most abundant volcanic gas
released in the atmosphere from the vent during eruptions are water vapor, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, sulfur oxide, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine and fluorine, acid aerosol. Harmful effects of these
hazards are the following:
1. sulfur compound, chlorine and iodine react with water to form poisonous acid which can damage or
irritate the skin and respiratory system of humans and other animals;
2. the acids absorbed by soil destroy vegetation, fabrics and metals; and
3. dust or acid aerosols can affect climate both local or global.
TSUNAMIS
A volcanic action or fault displacement in the sea floor produces a tsunami that travel at very high speeds
through deep water as low broad waves and build to great heights as they approach the shallow bottom of
shores. The eruption of Krakatau in 1883 Killed 36,000 people. The pyroclastic flow displaced the water
that initiated the tsunamis.
DIRTY THUNDERSTORM OR VOLCANIC LIGHTNING

This hazard refers to the production of lightning in a volcanic plume. According to studies, electrical
charges are generated by rock fragments, ash and the particles in a volcanic plume collide and produce
static charge similar to the particles colliding when there is a thunderstorm. On the plume started going
downwind, it seemed to have a life of its own and produced 300 more or less normal lightning bolts. It is
believed that large amounts of water released during eruption may have help fuel the thunderstorms.
Precautionary Measures for Volcanic Eruptions

A volcanic eruption is very destructive. It can lead to serious damage to properties and loss of many lives.
To lessen these, listed below are some safety precautions related to volcanic eruptions.
Before
1. Tune-in to the radio or people with authority for
information and instructions.
2. Stock some food, water and medicine.
3. Keep flashlights, kerosene lamp, matches and first
aid kit ready and accessible.
4.bEvacuate if needed.
During
1. Keep calm. Do not panic.
2. If indoor, stay under a sturdy table.
3. If outdoor, stay in an open area.
4. Cover nose with damp cloth.
After
1.Check yourself for injuries.
2. Tune-in to the radio and people with authority for
announcements and instructions.
3. Help in rescuing injured people.
4. Repair damaged properties.
C. LANDSLIDES AND AVALANCHES

It is important for humans to understand various causes and impacts of this particular hazard to effectively
assessed and implement proper mitigation and adaptation. Some of the identified causes are the following:
1. Natural causes. Elevation of pore water pressure by saturation of slope material from either intense or
prolonged rainfall and seepage:
a. vibrations caused by earthquakes

b. undercutting of cliffs and banks by waves or river erosion
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c. volcanic eruption
2.Human causes
a. removal of vegetation(deforestation)
b. interference with, or changes to, natural drainage
c. leaking pipes such as water and sewer reticulation
d. modification of slopes by construction of roads, railways, buildings, etc.
e. overloading slopes
f. mining and quarrying activities
g. vibrations from heavy traffic blasting
h. excavation or displacement of rocks
D. FIRES
When there is tremors/shaking of the ground(earthquakes), electrical power or gas lines are damaged
causing fire which sometimes is very difficult to control or stop hence, it spreads rapidly causing further
destruction rather than by the earthquake itself.
E. SOIL LIQUEFACTION
This hazard happens as a result of earthquake wherein the shaking of the ground caused the water-
saturated granular material like sand to temporarily lose its strength and so it is transformed from a solid
particle to liquid. Soil liquefaction can tilt or sink infrastructures like buildings because the liquefied deposits
soften the foundation of the building. This happened in the 1964 Alaska earthquake wherein buildings
collapse.
Hydrometeorological Phenomena and Hazards

What are hydrometeorological hazards?
These are phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature that may cause loss of life,
injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic
disruption, or environmental damage.
EXAMPLES OF HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS

• Tropical Cyclones
• Thunderstorms
• Hailstorms
• Tornado
• Blizzards
• Heavy snow fall
• Avalanches
• Coastal storm surges
• Flash floods
• Drought
• Heatwaves
• Cold Spells
•
SOME HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS IN THE PHILIPPINES
CYCLONE
A cyclone is an intense low-pressure system which is characterized by strong spiral winds towards the
center, called the “Eye” in a counter-clockwise fl ow in the northern hemisphere. Hazards due to tropical
cyclones are strong winds with heavy rainfall that can cause widespread flooding, storm surges, landslides
and mudflows.
Classifications of Cyclones
-Tropical Depression – maximum winds from 35 kph to 63 kph
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-Tropical Storm – maximum winds from 64 kph to 118 kph
-Typhoons – maximum winds exceeding 118 kph
TYPHOON
A typhoon is can be identified by increased ocean swell, barometric pressure drops, wind speed, and
heavier rainfall. It is a low-pressure area rotating counterclockwise and containing rising warm air that
forms over warm water in the Western Pacific Ocean. Typhoons can damage due to thunderstorms, violent
winds, floods, and large waves with storm surges.
PUBLIC STORM WARNING SYSTEM

Public Storm Warning Signals are raised to warn the public of incoming weather disturbances. Once a
Storm Signal is raised, conditions are not yet necessarily felt in the given area. The following are the lead
times for issuing a Public Storm Signal:
• The weather disturbance is expected in 36 hours once Public Storm Warning Signal No. 1 is raised.
Lead time shortens if a new weather bulletin is issued and the area’s Public Storm Signal Warning remains
the same.
As the weather disturbance moves through the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR), Public Storm
Signals may be upgraded or downgraded.
An area’s given signal number is based on the intensity, size of circulation and the forecast direction, and
speed of the tropical storm or typhoon when the Public Storm Warning Signal is raised. Changes in
intensity, size of circulation, or movement of the tropical cyclone also determines the change of the Public
Storm Warning Signal in a given area.
Meteorological Conditions:
• A tropical cyclone will threaten/affect an area.
• Winds of 30-60 kph is expected.
• Intermittent rains may be expected in at least 36 hours. (When the tropical cyclone develops very
close to an area, a shorter lead time of the occurrence of the winds will be specified in the warning
bulletin.)
Impact of the Winds:
• Twigs and branches of small trees may be broken.
• Some banana plants may be tilted or uprooted.
• Some houses of very light materials may be partially unroofed.
• Only very light or no damage may be sustained by areas affected.
• Rice crops in flowering stage may suffer significant damage.
Precautionary Measures:
• When the tropical cyclone intensifies and moves closer, this warning signal number may be
upgraded.
• The waves on coastal waters may gradually develop and swell.
• The people are advised to listen to the latest severe weather bulletin issued by PAGASA every six
hours.
• Business may be carried out as usual except when floods occur.
• Disaster preparedness units are activated to alert status.
• A tropical cyclone will affect an area.
• Winds of greater than 60 kph and up to 100 kph may be expected in at least 24 hours.
• Some coconut trees may tilt; some of them may break.
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• Few big trees may be uprooted.
• Many banana plants may be downed.
• Rice and corn crops may be affected.
• A large number of houses made of light materials may be unroofed.
• Old galvanized iron roofing may be peeled off.
• In general, the winds may bring light to moderate damage to the exposed communities.
• The sea and coastal waters are dangerous to small seacraft.
• Special attention should be given to the latest position, direction and movement speed, and intensity
of the storm as it moves toward an area.
• The public especially people traveling by sea and air are cautioned.
• Outdoor activities of children should be postponed.
• Secure properties before the signal is upgraded.
• Disaster preparedness agencies/organizations are in action to alert their communities.
• A tropical cyclone will affect an area.
• Winds of greater than 100 kph up to 185 kph may be expected in at least 18 hours.
• Many coconut trees may be broken or destroyed.
• Almost all banana plants may be downed and a large number of trees may be uprooted.
• Rice and corn crops may suffer heavy losses.
• Majority of light material houses may be unroofed or destroyed. There may be considerable damage
to structures of light to medium construction.
• There may be widespread disruption of electrical power and communication services.
• In general, moderate to heavy damage may be experienced, particularly in the agricultural and
industrial sectors.
• The weather condition is dangerous to the communities affected.
• The sea and coastal waters will be very dangerous to all seacraft.
• Travel is very risky especially by air and sea.
• People are advised to seek shelter in strong buildings, evacuate low-lying areas, and stay away
from the coasts and riverbanks.
• Watch out for the passage of the eye of the typhoon indicated by a sudden occurrence of fair
weather immediately after very bad weather, with very strong winds coming generally from the
north.
• When the eye of the typhoon hit the community, do not venture away from the safe shelter because
after one to two hours, the worst weather will resume, with the very strong winds coming from the
south.
• Classes in all levels should be suspended and children should stay in the safety of strong buildings.
• Disaster preparedness and response agencies/organizations are in action with appropriate
response to emergency.
• A very intense typhoon will affect the area.
• Very strong winds of more than 185 kph may be expected in at least 12 hours.
• Coconut plantations may suffer extensive damage.
• Many large trees may be uprooted.
• Rice and corn plantation may suffer severe losses.
• Most residential and institutional buildings of mixed construction may be severely damaged.
• Electrical power distribution and communication services may be severely disrupted.
• Damage to affected communities can be very heavy.
• The situation is potentially very destructive to the community.
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• All travels and outdoor activities should be cancelled.
• Evacuation to safer shelters should have been completed.
• The area is very likely to be hit directly by the eye of the typhoon.
• As the eye of the typhoon approaches, the weather will worsen continuously, with winds increasing
to its strongest coming generally from the north.
• A sudden improvement of the weather with light winds will be experienced, which means the area is
under the eye of the typhoon.
• Depending on the eye’s diameter and movement speed, this improved weather may last for an hour
or two.
• As the eye moves out of the area, weather conditions will worsen, with strong winds generally
coming from the south.
• The disaster coordinating councils concerned and other disaster response organizations are now
fully responding to emergencies.
SUPER TYPHOON
• A Super Typhoon will affect the area.
• Very strong winds of more than 220 kph may be expected in at least 12 hours.
• Almost total damage to structures of light materials, especially in highly exposed coastal areas.
• Complete roof failure on many buildings. Severe and extensive window and door damage.
• Most residential and institutional buildings of mixed construction may be severely damaged.
• Electrical power distribution and communication services severely disrupted.
• All signboards blown down.
• Total damage to banana plantation.
• Most tall trees are broken, uprooted, or defoliated.
• Coconut tress are stooped, broken, or uprooted.
• Few plants and tress survived.
• The situation is potentially extremely destructive or catastrophic to the community.
• All travels and outdoor activities should be cancelled.
• Evacuation to safer shelters should have been completed since it may have been too late for this
situation.
• The area is very likely to be hit directly by the eye of the typhoon.
• As the eye of the typhoon approaches, the weather will worsen continuously, with winds increasing
to its strongest coming generally from the north.
• A sudden improvement of the weather with light winds will be experienced, which means the area is
under the eye of the typhoon.
• Depending on the eye’s diameter and movement speed, this improved weather may last for an hour
or two.
• As the eye moves out of the area, weather conditions will worsen, with strong winds generally
coming from the south.
• The disaster coordinating councils concerned and other disaster response organizations are now
fully responding to emergencies and in full readiness to immediately respond to possible calamity.
FLOODS/ FLASH FLOODS

Flash floods are inundation of land areas which are not normally covered by water. Floods are hydrological
phenomena and they are also caused by storm surges, and tsunami. They are identified by continuous
storms/ rain, distant thunders, rapidly rising water, muddy water, and water that carries logs and other
debris.
STORM SURGE
Storm surge is a rise of seawater above normal sea level on the coast, generated by the action of weather
elements such as cyclonic wind and atmospheric pressure. Storm surge can sweep across large portions of
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coastal areas. They can be identified by cumulus-nimbus dark skies, low pressure, strong winds, and rising
of seawater.
LIGHTNING STORMS/ THUNDERSTORMS

A thunderstorm is a weather condition that produces lightning and thunder, heavy rainfall from
cumulonimbus clouds and possibly a tornado. It is identified by cloud formations, darkening skies, lightning
and wind.
EL NIÑO
El Niño is a flow of unusually warm water along the western coast of South America that causes many
changes in weather in other places. They can be identified by hot weather, high pressure, gradual drying of
land, and change in temperature.
LA NIÑA
La Niña is a climate pattern that describes the cooling of surface ocean waters along the tropical west coast
of South America. La Nina is considered to be the counterpart to El Nino. It is characterized by cold air, less
temperature difference, cooler water and air, and a single weaker Jetstream.
Hazard Maps
Hazard maps indicate settlement areas that are at risk from floods, avalanches, landslides and rockfall. A
separate map exists for each of these hazard categories. The maps can be used to identify areas that
could be flooded by the next storm, locations where avalanches could be released and slopes where a
landslide could arise.
The hazard maps also provide detailed information about the causes, course, spatial scope, intensity and
probability of occurrence of natural hazard events.
Using hazard map

1. Spatial planning: Hazard maps provide a basis for communal and cantonal spatial planning
processes (e.g., definition of hazard zones in development plans and formulation of building
regulations).
2. Risk reduction measures: Hazard maps assist in the localization and dimensioning of hazard
protection measures (e.g., flood protection structures, avalanche barriers etc.)
3. Instruments used in emergency planning: Hazard maps indicate where the biggest risks arise
and the events most likely to occur. This information can be used as a source of orientation in
emergency planning.
4. Raising awareness among the population: Hazard maps help to demonstrate potential risks to
the population and to increase awareness of eventual protective measures.
A. Using a vlog, make a special report on the storm surge caused by Typhoon Yolanda that hit
Tacloban. Be guided by the following in making your content:
a. Describe the approach and destruction over the whole area.
b. Provide some tips on how to lessen the damage.
c. How are the rehabilitation and reconstructions being done to resettle the survivors.
B. Research on the Marikina Fault Valley System. Make a written report about the landmarks,
important buildings and critical areas that might be affected by the so called “The Big One”.
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QUARTER 2
CONTENT STANDARD MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES WEEK NO.
describe classic experiments that model conditions

the origin of the first life forms
which may have enabled the first forms to evolve
the cell as the basic unit of life explain how cells carry out functions required for life
13-16
how photosynthetic
explain how photosynthetic organisms use light energy
organisms capture light energy
to combine carbon dioxide and water to form energy-
to form sugar molecules
rich compounds
how organisms obtain and
trace the energy flow from the environment to the cells.
utilize energy
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. define spontaneous generation theory;
2. explain the classical experiments conducted to identify the origin of the first life forms;
3. identify the people involved the discovery of the cell; and
4. distinguish the different cell organelles and their function.
LEARNING CONTENT
Lesson 1: Beginning of Life
If a species can develop only from a preexisting species, then how did life originate? Among the many
philosophical and religious ideas advanced to answer that question, one of the most popular was the theory
of spontaneous generation, according to which, as already mentioned, living organisms could originate
from nonliving matter.
With the increasing tempo of discovery during the 17th and 18th centuries, however, investigators began to
examine more critically the Greek belief that flies and other small animals arose from the mud at the bottom
of streams and ponds by spontaneous generation. Then, when Harvey announced his biological dictum ex
ovo omnia (“everything comes from the egg”), it appeared that he had solved the problem, at least insofar
as it pertained to flowering plants and the higher animals, all of which develop from an egg. But
Leeuwenhoek’s subsequent disquieting discovery of animalcules demonstrated the existence of a densely
populated but previously invisible world of organisms that had to be explained.
The Italian physician and poet Francesco Redi was one of the first to question the spontaneous origin of
living things. Having observed the development of maggots and flies on decaying meat, Redi in 1668
devised a number of experiments, all pointing to the same conclusion: if flies are excluded from rotten
meat, maggots do not develop. On meat exposed to air, however, eggs laid by flies develop into maggots.
Nonetheless, in 1745 support for spontaneous generation was renewed with the publication of An Account
of Some New Microscopical Discoveries by the English naturalist and Roman Catholic divine John
Turberville Needham. Needham found that large numbers of organisms subsequently developed in
prepared infusions of many different substances that had been exposed to intense heat in sealed tubes for
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30 minutes. Assuming that such heat treatment must have killed any previous organisms, Needham
explained the presence of the new population on the grounds of spontaneous generation. The experiments
appeared irrefutable until the Italian physiologist Lazzaro Spallanzani repeated them and obtained
conflicting results. He published his findings around 1775, claiming that Needham had not heated his tubes
long enough, nor had he sealed them in a satisfactory manner. Although Spallanzani’s results should have
been convincing, Needham had the support of the influential French naturalist Buffon; hence, the matter of
spontaneous generation remained unresolved.
The death of spontaneous generation

After a number of further investigations had failed to solve the problem, the French Academy of Sciences
offered a prize for research that would “throw new light on the question of spontaneous generation.” In
response to that challenge, Louis Pasteur, who at that time was a chemist, subjected flasks containing a
sugared yeast solution to a variety of conditions. Pasteur was able to demonstrate conclusively that any
microorganisms that developed in suitable media came from microorganisms in the air, not from the air
itself, as Needham had suggested. Support for Pasteur’s findings came in 1876 from the English physicist
John Tyndall, who devised an apparatus to demonstrate that air had the ability to carry particulate matter.
Because such matter in air reflects light when the air is illuminated under special conditions, Tyndall’s
apparatus could be used to indicate when air was pure. Tyndall found that no organisms were produced
when pure air was introduced into media capable of supporting the growth of microorganisms. It was those
results, together with Pasteur’s findings, that put an end to the doctrine of spontaneous generation.
The origin of primordial life
In the 1920s the Russian biochemist Aleksandr Oparin and other scientists suggested that life may have
come from nonliving matter under conditions that existed on primitive Earth, when
the atmosphere consisted of the gases methane, ammonia, water vapor, and hydrogen. According to that
concept, energy supplied by electrical storms and ultraviolet light may have broken down the atmospheric
gases into their constituent elements, and organic molecules may have been formed when the elements
recombined.
THE CELL THEORY
INTRODUCTION
The cell theory, or cell doctrine, states that all organisms are composed of similar units of organization,
called cells. The concept was formally articulated in 1839 by Schleiden & Schwann and has remained as
the foundation of modern biology. The idea predates other great paradigms of biology including Darwin’s
theory of evolution (1859), Mendel’s laws of inheritance (1865), and the establishment of comparative
biochemistry (1940).
First Cells Seen in Cork

While the invention of the telescope made the Cosmos accessible to human observation, the microscope
opened up smaller worlds, showing what living forms were composed of. The cell was first discovered and
named by Robert Hooke in 1665. He remarked that it looked strangely similar to cellula or small rooms
which monks inhabited, thus deriving the name. However what Hooke actually saw was the dead cell walls
of plant cells (cork) as it appeared under the microscope. Hooke’s description of these cells was published
in Micrographia. The cell walls observed by Hooke gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles
found in most living cells. The first man to witness a live cell under a microscope was Anton van
Leeuwenhoek, who in 1674 described the algae Spirogyra. Van Leeuwenhoek probably also saw bacteria.
Page | 33
Formulation of the Cell Theory
In 1838, Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden were enjoying after-dinner coffee and talking about
their studies on cells. It has been suggested that when Schwann heard Schleiden describe plant cells with
nuclei, he was struck by the similarity of these plant cells to cells he had observed in animal tissues. The
two scientists went immediately to Schwann’s lab to look at his slides. Schwann published his book on
animal and plant cells (Schwann 1839) the next year, a treatise devoid of acknowledgments of anyone
else’s contribution, including that of Schleiden (1838). He summarized his observations into three
conclusions about cells:
1. The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living things.
2. The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the construction of
organisms.
3. Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals (spontaneous generation).
We know today that the first two tenets are correct, but the third is clearly wrong. The correct interpretation
of cell formation by division was finally promoted by others and formally enunciated in Rudolph Virchow’s
powerful dictum, Omnis cellula e cellula,: “All cells only arise from pre-existing cells”.
In addition to the cell theory, the gene theory, evolution, homeostasis, and the law of thermodynamics form
the basic principles that serve as the foundation for the study of life.
Modern Cell Theory
1. All known living things are made up of one or more cells.
2. All living cells arise from pre-existing cells.
3. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all organisms.
4. The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.
5. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within the cells.
6. Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome and RNA found in the cell nucleus
and cytoplasm.
7. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species.
8. Hereditary information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.
9. All cells have the same basic chemical composition.
10. All organisms are composed of and depend on cells to function normally.
However, not all cells are alike. There are two primary types of cells: eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
Examples of eukaryotic cells include animal cells, plant cells, and fungal cells. Prokaryotic cells include
bacteria and archaea.
Answer the following questions briefly.

1. Why are cells considered as the basic unit of life?
2. Explain spontaneous generation theory and how it was disproved.
3. Is it possible for a microorganism to arise from non-living thing? Why or why not?
4. Discuss how the cell theory was formulated.
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LESSON 2: BIOENERGETICS
THE CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
Organisms are composed of cells and these cells have specific structures within them. These
structures called organelles allow them to carry out their functions. Each organelle performs different
functions within a cell. This is called division of labor.
PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

THE CELL ORGANELLES
Organelles
• Specific structure within the cell that allow them to carry out their function.
Cell Wall
▪ The inflexible barrier “protecting” the cell and giving it support. Is not selectively permeable.
▪ It is a rigid structure.
Cell Membrane
▪ The boundary between the cell and the environment.
▪ Allows nutrients/ regulates movement in and out of the cell.
Cytoplasm
▪ Clear, gelatinous fluid inside a cell which suspends and holds a cell’s organelles, such as the
nucleus.
Nucleus
▪ Central leader of the cell. Surrounded by nuclear envelope. Contains directions to make proteins
and genetic information, DNA or RNA. (“Control Center of Cell”); inside is the nucleolus which
makes ribosomes.
▪ It is the largest organelle in the cell.
Nuclear Membrane
▪ The outer lining or wall of the nucleus.
▪ Also known as the nuclear envelope.
▪ It protects the nucleus.
Vacuole
▪ Membrane-bound “compartment” used for temporary material “storage”. (In plants it is found in the
center of cell, in animals it is off to the side)
Mitochondria
▪ Membrane-bound organelle that transforms energy from the cell.
Lysosome
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▪ Contain enzymes which digest excess organelles, food particles, viruses, and bacteria. The
“vacuum cleaner” of a cell. They break down organelles not needed.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
▪ The site of cellular chemical reactions. Rough ER means ribosomes are attached and are
synthesizing/making proteins. (“Transportation system with workers”)
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
▪ The site of a cellular chemical reaction. Smooth ER has no ribosomes present. (“Transportation
system with no workers”)
Ribosomes
▪ Site where the cell produces proteins according to the DNA instructions, which comes from the
nucleus. (“Workers of cell”)
–Bound Ribosomes: make proteins for use outside cell
–Free Ribosomes: make proteins for use inside cell
Golgi Apparatus
▪ Flattens and packages proteins to be sent to their appropriate destination.
Chloroplast
▪ Converts light energy to chemical energy.
▪ It contains Chlorophyll.
Chromatin
▪ Master set of directions for making proteins. Contents are in the form of Genes & DNA.
Cell City Analogy

In a faraway city called Light City, the main export and production product is the steel widget.
Everyone in the city has something to do with the steel widget making and the entire town is designed to
build and export widgets. The city hall has the instruction for widget making. Widgets come in all sizes and
shapes and any citizen of Light city can get the instruction and begin their own widget. Widgets are
generally produced in small stores around the city. These small stores can be built by the construction
engineer’s union (whose headquarters are in city hall). After the widget is constructed, they are placed in
special carts which can deliver the widget anywhere in the city. In order for a widget to be exported, the
carts take the widget to the postal office, where the widgets are packaged and labeled for export.
Sometimes the widgets don’t turn out right, and the rejects turned to the scrap yard where they are broken
down for parts and destroyed altogether. The city powers the widget shops and carts from hydraulic dam.
The entire city is enclosed by a large wooden fence. Only the postal trucks and citizens with proper
documents are allowed in the city.
A. Match the parts of the city (underlined) with the parts of the cell.
1. Nucleus 6. Lysosomes
2. Nucleolus 7. Protein
3. Mitochondria 8. Endoplasmic Reticulum
4. Cell Membrane 9. Golgi Apparatus
5. Ribosomes
B. Choose at least 5 answers and explain how these organelles match with the part of the city.
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. identify the process of energy production in both humans and plants;
2. distinguish the different stages in both process; and
3. cite the importance of both process in an organism.
BIOENERGETICS
Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis
Together, the processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration allow life on Earth to gather energy for
use in other reactions. Besides the organisms that rely on sulfur near hydrothermal vents, the majority of
life on Earth relies on the sugar glucose. Glucose is created by the process of photosynthesis. Cellular
respiration involves the breakdown of glucose and the storage of the energy received into
the molecule ATP. Plants create their own energy through photosynthesis and also use cellular respiration
to produce ATP. Animals must rely on the sugars that they’ve gathered from plants to supply
their mitochondria material to produce ATP.
Process of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the main process which drives life on Earth. Through photosynthesis, energy from the
sun is captured in the bonds of organic molecules. These molecules, glucose molecules, are the basis of all
life on Earth. Glucose will be used by the process of cellular respiration to harness chemical energy stored
within the covalent bonds of the sugar.
Photosynthesis occurs in the leaves and green parts of plants. Organelles within plant cells, known
as chloroplasts, contain specialized proteins capable of interacting with light. Cytochromes are these
specialized proteins, which are attached to a heme group. Heme groups are also seen bound
to hemoglobin, in blood cells. Instead of iron, these heme cells bind magnesium. The complex structure of
the heme interacts with the photons of light passing through them.
The chloroplast uses the energy harnessed from these photons and their interaction with the cytochromes
and other proteins to drive the formation of glucose. To do this, the chloroplasts will combine units of
carbon dioxide into chains of 6 carbons, 12 hydrogens, and 6 oxygens. This is glucose, which can then be
modified and combined with other glucose molecules to be stored as starches and complex sugars
like fructose.
Photosynthesis Reaction
The photosynthesis reaction has two parts, commonly referred to as
the Light reactions and the Calvin Cycle. The entire process of
photosynthesis can be seen below.
Simple photosynthesis overview
At the top of the diagram, light and water combine in the chloroplasts,
where the hydrogens are separated from the oxygen in chain of
proteins starting from the energy-collecting cytochromes
and accessory pigments. The hydrogens, electrons, and associated
energy are bound to ADP and NADP+. These molecules can bind a
hydrogen, electrons, and energy. In doing so, they become the main
products of the light reactions, NADPH and ATP. Oxygen is produced
as a by-product.
ATP and NADPH are then used within the Calvin Cycle, a series of
reactions which recycles these electron-carriers and produces
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glucose. The energy within and the hydrogen molecules are used to energize reactions throughout the
cycle. The Calvin Cycle has three phases, carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration of ribose. These
reactions can be seen in the image below. Notice that the addition of one carbon dioxide in one turn of the
reaction produces the 3-carbon molecule 3-phoshphoglycerate. Two of these molecules are then combined
to produce a glucose, among other things.
Process of Cellular Respiration

Once the glucose is created by the chloroplasts, it can be used to drive other reactions within the cell. It can
also be exported to other cells within the organism. This is where the process of cellular respiration takes
over. Cellular respiration has 4 distinct processes, which drive the creation of ATP. This ATP can be used
in a number of cellular reactions, and provides activation energy to help enzymes complete tasks.
Cellular respiration happens in the mitochondria, a small organelle similar to the chloroplasts. While
chloroplasts are only found in plants, mitochondria are found in all living eukaryotes. Plants provide all the
glucose their cells need, and more. This extra glucose they store as starches and complex sugars.
Animals, and indeed the entire food-chain, relies on the glucose produced by plants.
Cellular Respiration Reaction

The first process of cellular respiration, glycolysis, is
exactly what its name implies. “Glyco-” refers to glucose,
where “-lysis” refers to something being divided or split in
half. Glycolysis happens within the cytosol of the cell,
outside of the mitochondria. In this process, the 6-carbon
glucose molecule is split into two molecules of pyruvate.
This 3-carbon molecule is then converted to Acetyl CoA in
the next step. This molecule will be an essential part of
the Krebs cycle. Acetyl CoA is also able to transfer into the
mitochondria, where the Krebs cycle and oxidative
phosphorylation will take place.
The Krebs cycle is similar to the Calvin cycle, in that it

recycles certain molecules to continually drive the
production of electrons and ATP. The electrons are then passed to the inner mitochondrial membrane. This
membrane is loaded with specialized proteins,
capable of transferring energy derived from the
passing of electrons down their potential
gradient.
This electron transport chain uses a series of

electron driven enzymes, which specialize in
binding loose phosphate groups to ADP. In doing
so, they store energy in the bond between these
molecules, and create an ATP. These ATP
molecules are then exported from the
mitochondria, and can be used throughout the
cell to provide energy in other reactions. For
instance, ATP is used to pump ions out of cells,
creating the electrical potential needed for
nervous reactions. There are innumerous other
examples.
Page | 38
References:
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Acledan, M. Y. et al. (2017). Earth and Life Science. Mutya Publishing Co. ISBN: 978-971-821-700-9
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tectonics.html#:~:text=Plate%20tectonics%20is%20the%20theory,shell%20compared%20to%20Earth's%2
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fossils#:~:text=Relative%20dating%20is%20used%20to,the%20rocks%20associated%20with%20it.
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Page | 39
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Page | 40

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The learners demonstrate

the Earth’s internal structure

Describe where the Earth’s internal heat

Describe how magma is formed (magmatism).

Formation of the Universe

Theories about the origin of the Universe

G. Cosmic Inflation Theory

1.2 Formation of the Solar System

B. The Modern Laplacian Theory

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. How did the universe start based on the Creationist Theory?

4. Complete the statement. Choose only one.

Lesson 2: Earth’s subsystems

The Composition and Structure of Earth

The lithosphere is composed of both the crust and

What are igneous rocks?

Extrusive Igneous Rocks:

What are metamorphic rocks?

Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks:

What are sedimentary rocks?

Common Sedimentary Rocks:

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks:

Biologic Sedimentary Rocks:

Physical properties of minerals

A. Draw and discuss the rock cycle.

What are Exogenic Forces?

Physical / Mechanical weathering

Erosion and Deposition

How magma forms

A. Answer the following questions briefly.

HISTORY OF THE EARTH

THE MESOZOIC ERA

TYPES OF FAULTS ASSOCIATED WITH PLATE BOUNDARIES

Divergent plate boundaries

Transform plate boundaries

Convergent plate boundaries

Nevada is located within the Basin and

A. Answer the following questions briefly.

WHAT TO DO DURING AN EARTHQUAKE

WHAT TO DO WHEN THE EARTHQUAKE IS OVER

WHAT TO DO IN THE EVENT OF A TSUNAMI ALERT

DIRTY THUNDERSTORM OR VOLCANIC LIGHTNING

Precautionary Measures for Volcanic Eruptions

C. LANDSLIDES AND AVALANCHES

a. vibrations caused by earthquakes

Hydrometeorological Phenomena and Hazards

EXAMPLES OF HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS

PUBLIC STORM WARNING SYSTEM

FLOODS/ FLASH FLOODS

LIGHTNING STORMS/ THUNDERSTORMS

Using hazard map

describe classic experiments that model conditions

The death of spontaneous generation

First Cells Seen in Cork

Answer the following questions briefly.

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

Cell City Analogy

Process of Cellular Respiration

Cellular Respiration Reaction

The Krebs cycle is similar to the Calvin cycle, in that it

This electron transport chain uses a series of

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