Gen. Bio.

- W1
DNA
- Deoxyribonucleic Acid
- carries the genetic information in all living organisms.
RNA
- a single strand type of nucleic acids that is mostly
involved in protein synthesis.
Enzyme
- is a protein molecule that catalyzes biochemical
reactions.
Genetic Engineering
- Artificial manipulation, modification and
reconstruction of DNA
Types of Genetic Engineering
1. Classical Breeding
- practice of mating or breeding
related organisms with desirable
traits.
- Sexual and Asexual
Ex: fruits, vegetables, animals STEPS:
Steps: 1. Isolate
- Isolate DNA from 2 sources (Gene of interest
and plasmid)
2. Cut
- Cut both DNAs by the “Restriction Enzyme”
3. Combine
- Combine the DNAs and Seal using “DNA
ligase”
4. Transfer
- Transfer the recombinant DNA plasmid into
the bacterial cell
2. Recombinant DNA 5. Isolation & Insertion
- form of artificial DNA created by - Isolation and Insertion to other organisms to
combining 2 or more sequences that confer the desired trait
would not normally occur together Application of rDNA
through splicing 1. Food
- Deletion of nitrogenous bases 2. Agriculture .
Recombinant DNA Technology 3. Environmental
- allows DNA to be produced via artificial means. 4. Medicine
May involve the ff: 5. Research
1. Introduction of new traits into an organism, 6. Biotechnology
2. Enhancement of a present trait by increasing the Other Applications of rDNA
expression of the desired gene, or 1. Analysis of Gene Structure and Expression
3. Enhancement of a present trait by disrupting the - Using specialized recombinant DNA
inhibition of the desired gene’s expression. techniques, researchers have determined
vast amounts of DNA sequence including the
entire genomic sequence of humans and
many key experimental organisms.
This enormous volume of data, which is growing at a rapid
pace, has been stored and organized in two primary data
banks:
- Gen Bank at the National Institutes of Health,
Bethesda, Maryland, and the EMBL
Sequence
- Data Base at the European Molecular
Biology Laboratory in Heidelberg, Germany.
 2. Pharmaceutical Products – Drugs – Vaccines Ex: Trilobites Fossils and Ammonites Fossils
- Some pharmaceutical applications of DNA Dating Fossils
technology: Large-scale production of human 1. Relative Dating
hormones and other proteins with - Based upon the study of layer of rocks
therapeutic uses Production of safer - Does not tell the exact age: only compare
vaccines A number of therapeutic gene fossils as older or younger, depends on their
products — insulin, the interleukins, position in rock layer
interferons, growth hormones, 2. Absolute Dating
erythropoietin, and coagulation factor - Determines the actual age of the fossil
VIII—are now produced commercially from - Through radiometric dating, using radioactive
cloned genes isotopes carbon-14 and potassium-40
3. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) - Considers the half-life or the time it takes for
- Transgenic plants – Transgenic animal Use of half of the atoms of the radioactive element
recombinant plasmids in agriculture – plants to decay
with genetically desirable traits - The decay products of radioactive isotopes
Examples of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO): are stable atoms.
1. Bt Corn Paleontology
- Bacillus thuringiensis - is the scientific study of the existence of life,
- Resistant ro corn borer including the origin and eventual destruction or
2. Golden Rice extinction of different groups of organisms.
- B-carotene Paleontologists
- Precursor Vitamin A - specialize in studying the ecologies of the past and
3. Bt Eggplant the evolution of organisms that thrived in these
- Bacillus thuringiensis ecologies through careful observation and
- Eggplant Fruit and Skirt Borer. documentation of fossils.
4. Sugar Beet Geology
- Beta vulgarisr - is the study of life on Earth based on the evidence
5. Pink Pineapple found in rocks.
- Ananas comosus ‘Pink Pineapple’ Geologists
- manipulating the lycopene and - are scientists who carefully study different
beta-carotene content in the fruit materials that make up earth. They work to
GMOs have played an important role in developing understand the history of earth by focusing on the
vaccines for; changes of earth over time in relation to changes in
● Zika Virus climate and land formation.
● Ebola Virus Eon
● Flu - The largest division of geologic time scale; half
● Hepatitis B billion- nearly 2 billions of years.
● Insulin Two Major Divisions:
Gen. Bio. - W2 Precambrian
Geologic Time Scale - 4.5 million years; about 88% of the Earth’s
- A record of life forms and geological events in Earth’s History
history Hadean Eon
- from 4.6 to 3.9 billion years agO,
- is characterized by Earth’s formation
of dust and gasses
Archaean Eon
- from 3.9 to 2.5 billion years
ago
- where the first life-forms
represented by single-celled
organisms appeared.
Fossils Proterozoic Eon
- Remnant, impression, or trace of an animal or plant - from 2.5 billion years ago to 540
of a past geological age that has been preserved in million years ago
Earth’s crust. - where the first multicellular
- The complex of data recorded in fossils worldwide – organisms arose and where mass
known as the fossils record – is the primary source of extinction occurred.
information about the history of life on Earth.
 Phanerozoic
- The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three
eras, namely, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and
Cenozoic eras.
- The boundaries of the era have been
determined based on the different organisms
that were present during a certain period in
the geologic timescale.
ERA
- Division that span time periods of tens to hundreds
of million years
Paleozoic Era
- began about 540 million years ago and lasted for
about 300 million years.
- Many kinds of organisms lived during this era,
particularly the;
- INVERTEBRATES, animals that lack of vertebrae or
backbone
- This is when fossils records become rich with
evidence of many marine organisms.
Periods
- A division of geologic history with spans of
no more than 100 million years
Cambrian Period
- organisms were noted to have hard body
parts such as shells and outer skeletons.
- The first known representatives of most
animal phyla evolved during this period,
which include jelly fishes, worms, and
sponges.
- Also common during this period were the
brachiopods, which were small animals with
two shells.
- And trilobites were the most dominant
macroscopic life-forms in this period
Ordovician and the Silurian periods
- early forms of cephalopods (which include
octopi and squads) appeared.
- The first vertebrates, animals with
backbones, to appear in this period were
jawless fishes which had sucker like mouths.
They become common in the seas.
- Among the invertebrates, animals without
backbones, that first appeared in this period
were insects. The first forms of land plants
also appeared.
Corals and Fish
Cooksonia
- A vascular plant
contains the xylem
and phloem, for
transport food
Devonian Period
- Devonian period, many plants, including
ferns, adapted to drier areas, which allowed
them to invade other kinds of habitats
- Aquatic areas, on the other hand, were
mostly populated with both invertebrates
and vertebrates.
- This period is referred to as the Age of Fishes
because many groups of fishes have evolved
during this period.
- Most of the fishes had jaws, bony skeletons,
and scales. Sharks also appeared
Carboniferous Period
- Widespread forest of huge plants left
massive deposits of carbon that eventually
turned to coal.
- The first amphibians evolved to colonize
land, but they have to return to the water to
reproduce.
- Soon after amphibians arose, the first
reptiles evolved. They were the first animals
that could reproduce on dry land.
Permian Period
- All the major land masses collided to form a
supercontinent called Pangaea.
- Temperatures were extreme, and the climate
was dry.
- Plants and animals evolved adaptions to
dryness, such as waxy leaves or leathery skin
to prevent water loss.
- The permian ended with a mass extinction.
Mesozoic Era
- “Middle Life”; “Age of Reptiles”
- started more than 280 million years ago.

Triassic Period
- The first dinosaurs branched off from the
reptiles and colonized the land, air, and
water.
- Huge seed ferns and conifers dominated the
forest, and modern corals, fish, and insects
evolved.
- The Supercontinent Pangae started to
separate into Laurasia and Gondwanaland
Jurassic Period
- “The Golden Age of Dinosaurs” earliest birds
evolved from reptile ancestors.
- “All the major groups of mammals evolved,
though individual mammals were still small
in size.
- The continents continued to move apart, and
volcanic activity was especially intense.
Cretaceous Period
- Dinosaurs reached their peak in size and
distribution.
- Earth’s overall climate was warm; even the
poles lacked ice.
Cenozoic Era
- “Recent Life”; “Age of Mammals”
- started 65 million years ago and continues up to
present
Tertiary Period (Neogene & Paleogene)
- 65-1.8 million years ago
- Earth’s Climate was generally warm and
Humid
- Mammals evolved to fill virtually all niches
vacated in size
- Mammals called primates, evolved, including
human ancestors.
- Modern rain forests and grasslands
appeared.
- Flowering plants and insects were numerous
and widespread.
Quaternary Period
- Earth’s climate cooled, leading to a series of
ice ages. Sea levels fell because so much
water was frozen in glaciers. This created
land bridges between continents, allowing
land animals to move to new eras.
- Some mammals, like the wooly mammoths
shown here, adapted to the cold by evolving
very large size and thick fur.
- Other animals moved closer to the equator
or went extinct, along with many plants.
Cretaceous Period
- Dinosaurs reached their peak in size and
distribution.
- Earth’s overall climate was warm; even the
poles lacked ice.
Epoch
- Smallest division of the geologic time scale.
Gen. Bio. - W3
Mechanisms of Evolution
Evolution
- Process
- Biological Population
- Inheritable Characteristics
- Successive Generations
- Develops in a long perod of time
- Adapt to the changes in her environment
Development of Evolutionary Thought
Aristotle (350 B.C.)
- He believed that animals emerged from different
elements and an animating force called vital heat, or
soul.
Carolus Linnaeus (1758)
- He developed a system of classification for all
identified organisms during his time, and was able to
show an evolutionary pattern among species.
George-Louis Leclerc de Buffon (1949-1988)
- He hypothesized that species come from the same
ancestors instead of emerging separately from one
another.
Charles Darwin
- Species evolved from one common ancestor.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
- Species evolved from an existing species through
environmental forces. Traits can be passed to the
next generation
Alfred Russel Wallce
- Species evolved from the process of natural selection
which caused variation within the population.
Theories of Evolution
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Theory of Acquired Characteristics
- or “soft inheritance,”
- Holds that an organism experiencing such a
modification can transmit such a character to its
offspring.
Theory of Use & Disuse
- Explains that the limbs, organs, and behavior of
organisms are enhanced when utilized more
frequently for their survival. Oppositely, when these
physical and behavioral characteristics fall into
disuse, they either reduce in size, decrease function
or stop evolving.
Ex: Flightless Birds, Aquatic Birds with webbed feet,
Extinction of limbs in snakes
Charles Darwin
“Survival of the Fittest”
- Organisms adapt to its environment and survive,
which means that external factors cause small
changes in their traits.
- The changes in their traits of a species can result in
the evolution of species, the emergence of new
species and the possibility of tracing the ancestry of
organisms.
Descent with Modification
- Descent with modification is the process that is used
by natural selection. As traits are passed through
generations, there is modification.
- These modifications are the differences that natural
selection will either get rid of, or will increase, based
on the environment.
Theory of Natural Selection
- Natural Selection – a process through which
populations of living organisms adapt and change.
Theory of Artificial Selection
- Artificial Selection – identification of desirable traits
by humans to perpetuate it to future generations
Mechanisms of Evolution
Gene Flow
- Introduction of genetic material (by interbreeding)
from one population of a species to another.
- can take place between two populations of the same
species through migration, and is mediated by
reproduction and vertical gene transfer from parent
to offspring.
Genetic Drift
- Genetic drift is an evolutionary change in allelic
frequencies of a population as a matter of chance.
- It occurs in very small populations, but its effects are
strong. It occurs due to an error in selecting the
alleles for the next generation from the gene pool of
the current generation. It does not occur due to any
environmental influences.
Types of Genetic Drift
Bottleneck Effect
- The bottleneck effect happens when the population
number is dramatically decreased as a result of
natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and
other natural disasters.
- The new population is made up of the organisms that
were able to survive the disasters.
Founder Effect
- The phenomenon, which occurs when a small group
of individuals becomes isolated from a large
population.
- Produces a population with a non-random sample of
genes of the original population.
Mutation
- The DNA sequence is specific to each organism. It can
sometimes undergo changes in its base-pairs
sequence. It is termed as a mutation.
- A mutation may lead to changes in proteins
translated by the DNA. Usually, the cells can
recognize any damage caused by mutation and repair
it before it becomes permanent.
Substitution
- During replication, one base is inserted incorrectly,
replacing the pair at the appropriate location on the
complementary strand.
Insertion
- The addition of one or more nucleobases can cause
this type of mutation. It can cause frameshift
mutation or sometimes even alterations in the
mRNA. Both will eventually affect the final gene
product.
Deletion
- During replication, one or more nucleotides may be
“skipped” or removed, which usually causes a
frameshift.