UNDERSTANDING OF

CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND

POLITICS
Understanding Social &
Cultural Backgrounds
Cultural and social backgrounds vary widely in their degree of cultural
integration. In small homogenous societies that have few contacts with
outsiders, cultural and social integration may be near-perfect. The different
elements of culture are synchronized. For may purposes, people act and
think as one, In some traditional societies, there is no word for religion
because what we call religious rituals are woven into the fabric of everyday
life. In complex, modern societies like our own, this is rarely the case. Social
and technological change may occur too rapidly for norms to keep pace.
Outdated norms may remain in law books and in the language as figures of
speech long after they’ve lost their usefulness.
In complex, modern societies, people live in different habitats from urban
high rise to rural farm, work different occupations, enjoy different standards
of living, follow different educational paths, and so experience different
versions of their culture. Internal inconsistencies and diversities are most
visible in such societies. Some people may keep up the traditions and
languages they brought from the old generations, setting themselves apart
while other people within a culture may rebel against prevailing standards
and create their own. But conflicting views of proper behavior exist in all
societies, creating enough ambiguity to allow introduction and acceptance of
change (Gelles, 1999).
Observations about Social
Political, Cultural Behavior, and
Phenomena
Hess (1991) states that we all have our different institutional spheres. It
might be social structure, cultural system and political structure and
economic system. But the content, the specific details of the institutional
spheres, and the ways in which these traits are linked together will be
different from one society to another, shaped by our own geography and
history. Our astonishing variety of customs, beliefs, and artifacts that human
have devised to meet universal needs.
If our culture is changing, so is our technology. World like Google, Facebook,
and texting were not in our dictionary 20 years ago. But now because of
advancement in technology it is now must to incorporate new technology
jargon into our present culture. Politics also undergoes change. The term
Political Dynasty has already been used many years but just recently it
reappears in our vocabulary. The Population has also drastically increased as
compared to the last century. Women are more empowered today than many
decades ago. Nothing can really stop into notion of social progress and
sociocultural evolution. Some social scientists say that change comes from
random while others propose that it is rather systematic. Social and cultural
changes involve a combination of systematic factors along with some
random or unique factors. To be able to understand these changes we need
to study and understand more in Social Science specifically Anthropology,
Political Science, and Sociology.
 ANTHROPOLOGY,
POLITICAL SCIENCE, &
SOCIOLOGY
Overview of Anthropology

Anthropology provides a window to our past, a minor for our

present, and a lens through which we look to the future.
Anthropologists research, observe, analyze, and apply what
they learn toward an understanding of the many variations of
the human condition. A grouping in past human adaptations,
both biological and cultural, contributes to our understanding
of adaptations today.
The word anthropology comes from the Greek terms anthropos, meaning
man, and logos, meaning science of study. In other words, anthropology
literally means the science or study of man. Man in the context refers to
the human species in its entirety. Anthropology, being the science of man,
has put us in a bit of an awkward position with the present focus on
politically correct terminology. The alternatives humankind and mankind
still have man as a root, and Homo sapiens is too academic for everyday
conversation. Most anthropologists settle for a potpourri of terms when
referring to our species in the hope that they will not offend anyone and
will manage to convey that their science included all humans. The scope of
our study of the human species includes all human groups, both cultural
and biological, today and as they adapted and evolved in the pasts
(Lenkeit, 2008).
Goals of Anthropology

1. Explain and analyzing human cultural similarities and

differences.
2. Assess the cultural development of our species as revealed
in the archeological record.
3. Analyze the biological evolution of the human species as
evidenced in the fossil record.
4. Explain human biological diversity today.
Overview of Political Science

Political science is the study of politics. It seeks answers to a

number of important questions: What attitudes and values
produce political conflict and dissent? What political
organizations are active in the struggle to achieve political
consensus? What assistance is available from international
agencies and the international community at large?
Political science does not have all the answers to these
questions, but it does have some, and, what is more important,
it has the means of finding others. Becoming a political
scientist means joining a community of people who work on just
these sorts of questions.
Aristotle and the Politics

Aristotle was born in 384 B.C. in Stagira, Chaldice, Greece -

died at the age of 322. He was an ancient Greek philosopher
and scientist, one of the greatest intellectual figures of
Western History. He was the author of a philosophical and
scientific system that became the framework and vehicle for
both Christian Scholasticism and medieval Islamic philosophy.
Even after the intellectual revolutions of the Renaissance, the
Reformation, and the Enlightenment, Aristotelian concepts
remained embedded in Western thinking. Aristotle which means
“the best purpose” was the first genuine scientist in history.
Overview of Sociology

The goal of the science is to find order in apparent chaos.

According to Thio (2000), scientists search for a pattern in
what, on the surface, may look like random variations. They look
for regularity, something that appears over and over, across
time and space. Observation is usually a key element in this
search. It is true that scientists, like everyone else, have
preconceived ideas, beliefs, and values and they use intuition to
understand the world. But scientific method requires scientists
to put aside existing views of what the world should be like and
to rely, above all, on observation.
Sociology can Change and Enrich
our Lives
Sociology can be used for at least three major purposes. First, it can be used as an
intellectual exercise, pursued for its own sake, for the pleasure of tickling our
curiosity, or for producing knowledge. Second, sociology can be used as a general
guide for understanding our lives. It encourages us to be more curious about the
society in which we live, actively participating in it while critically evaluating its
popular assumptions, and understanding race and ethnicity, gender, sexual
orientation, and other social characteristics. Third, sociology can be used to
pursue a specific career in government (to help fight crime, improve education,
reduce poverty, or solve some other social problem) or in the private sector (as a
sociology teacher, social researcher, social critic, political analyst, political
lobbyist, sociological consultant, or some other position that requires social
knowledge). However it is used, sociology can enrich our lives with its perspective
and insights.
Relationship of Sociology in other
Social Sciences
Sociology is one of the disciplines that study human social behavior in a
scientific, systematic manner. Over time, the divisions between the social
sciences have become less distinct. Many modern social scientists borrow
freely from the various social sciences in an effort to better understand
the social forces that help to shape our lives. The related disciplines that
study various aspects of human social behavior are called the social
sciences. In addition, to sociology, the social sciences include
anthropology, psychology, economics, political science, and history.
Thomas (1995) highlighted the relationship of Sociology with other fields
of Social Sciences.

1. Anthropology -The comparative study of various aspects of the past

and present is social science closest to sociology in its subject matter.
Anthropologists traditionally have concentrated on examining past
cultures and present simple societies. Sociology, on the other hand, is
most interested in group behavior in complex societies. Today,
however, many anthropologists also concentrate on complex societies.
Urban anthropologists, for instance, examine such things as the
cultural characteristics of neighborhoods and communities in Western
Nations.
2. Psychology - The social science that deals with the behavior and
thinking of organisms is Psychology. Psychology differs from sociology
primarily because it focuses on individual behavior rather than on group
behavior and draws more heavily on the tools of the natural sciences.
Areas of interest to psychologists include personality, perception,
motivation, and learning. Despite differences in emphasis, sociology, and
psychology are related, particularly in the area of social psychology.
Social psychology is the study of how an individual’s behavior and
personality are affected by the social environment. Social Psychology
departments and in sociology departments and people in both disciplines
claim the title of social psychologist.
3. Economics - it is the study of the choices people make in an effort to
satisfy their wants and needs. Economists examine the processes by
which goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed. They
also examine the effects of government policies on economic growth and
stability. Sociologists share many areas of interest with economists. The
effect of economic factors on the lives of various groups in society, for
instance, has attracted the attention of sociologists since the earliest
days of the discipline.
4. Political Science - The examination of the organization and operation of
government is the focus of Political Science. The interests of Sociology
and Political Science often overlap. Areas of mutual interest include
wrong patterns, the concentration of political power, and the formation of
politically-based groups.
5. History - it is the study of past events. Sociologists also are interested
in the past. Like many social historians, sociologists study past events in
an effort to explain current social behaviors and attitudes.
THE PIONEERS
OF SOCIOLOGY
AUGUSTE COMTE (1798 - 1857)
He is called the Father of Sociology. He coined the term sociology in 1838 to
refer to the scientific study of society. Comte believed that every society goes
through three stages of development: religious, metaphysical, and scientific in
his work The Course in Positive Philosophy, he also called it the Law of Three
Stages. According to Comte, reliance on superstition and speculation
characterizes the religious and metaphysical stages, and neither is adequate
for understanding society. What is needed, he argued, is scientific knowledge
about society based on social facts; just as scientific knowledge about the
physical world is based on physical facts. He envisioned a science of society
with two branches: statics, the study of the organization that allows society to
endure, and dynamics, the study of the process by which societies change.
During the scientific stage, Comte believed that sociologists would develop a
scientific knowledge of society and would guide society in a peaceful, orderly
evolution.
HARRIET MARTINEAU (1802 - 1876)
She is the first woman sociologist who agreed with Comte. She thought it useful to
translate Comte's ideas into English for wider accessibility. But Martineau, also an
accomplished writer, found Comte's work - which ran to six volumes -
"overloaded with words," and she finally pruned it to just two volumes. The result is
considerably more lucid and forceful than the original, and Comte was so impressed that
he wanted Martineau's version translated back into French. Also, as an independent
thinker in sociology, Martineau studied British and U.S. societies and suggested that
societal progress could be achieved by expanding scientific progress could be achieved
by expanding scientific knowledge in general and by eliminating slavery and gender
inequality in particular. Some of the works of Martineau are Society in America (1837)
where she criticized the state of women's education during her time and How to Observe
Morals and Manners (1838) where Martineau focuses on observing locals on their own
terms and emphasizes the need to accept cultural relativism of others. These two
sociological works of Martineau are considered significant contributions to the then-
emerging field of sociology.
HERBERT SPENCER (1820 - 1903)
An Englishman. He had a different view of how society works. He believed that a society
can be compared to a living organism. Each part of an animal - its heart, lungs, brain,
and so on - has its own function to perform, yet all the parts are interdependent; a
change in one part affects all the others. Moreover, each part contributes to the survival
and health of the animal as a whole. If one organ becomes diseased, others adapt by
working harder to ensure the animal's survival. Similarly, in Spencer's view, each part of
a society performs its own function and contributes to the survival and stability of the
whole. The family, religion, government, and industry are all seen as parts of one
"organism," society. Spencer concluded that society if left alone, corrects its own
problems; it tends naturally toward health and stability. Social problems work
themselves out through the process of natural selection called Survival of the Fittest.
The phrase suggests that rich, powerful, or otherwise successful people - the "fittest" -
have been "selected" by nature to be what they are. On the other hand, poor, weak, or
otherwise unsuccessful individuals
- the "unfit" - have been doomed by nature to failure. If the government interferes with
this natural process by helping the unfit, society will suffer because the efforts of its
successful people will be wasted.
KARL MARX (1818 - 1883)
Karl Marx wrote the Communist Manifesto which has been recognized as one of the
world's most influential political manuscripts. It presents an analytical approach to the
class struggle. Marx observed the underlying conflict, exploitation, and the seeds of
revolution. According to Marx, a German who spent much of his life writing in England,
Spencer's stable, interdependent society was a myth. The primary features of society,
Marx claimed, are not stability and interdependence but conflict and competition. He saw
every society, past and present, as marked by social conflict. Marx claimed that the
primary feature of society is class conflict, the struggle between capitalists, who own
the means of production, and the proletariat, who do not. These two classes, he said, are
inevitably locked in conflict. The laborers, far from becoming naturally unfit, are destined
to overthrow the capitalists and establish a classless society in which everyone will work
according to ability and receive according to need. Marx did not believe, as did Spencer,
that the differences between laborers and capitalists are determined by natural
selection. He is the proponent of Marxism, a worldview and method of societal analysis
that focuses on class relations and societal conflict.
EMILE DURKHEIM (1858 - 1917)
He pioneered the systematic application of scientific methods to sociology. He
published the first truly sociological research entitled Suicide in 1897. It is
the first classic sociological study and pioneered modern social research. His
ideas about suicide were not based on speculations. In his study of suicide, he
made a research plan and collected a large mass of statistical data on suicide
in various European countries. Then he analyzed the data in order to discover
the causes of suicide. He not only used systematic observation, but he also
argued that sociologists should consider only what they could observe and
should look at "social facts as things." They should not look, he said, to the
"notions" of people in order to explain society. People's subjective experiences
should not be a concern of sociologists. Durkheim also wrote The Division of
Labour in Society in 1893 as his doctoral dissertation. It was an advanced
sociological thought where he discussed the social order in society. He believed
that crime is an act that "offends strong and defined states of the collective
conscience" though he viewed crime as a normal social fact.
MAX WEBBER (1864 - 1920)
This German sociologist believed that sociologists must go beyond what people do,
beyond what can be observed directly. He argued that individuals always interpret
the meaning of their own behavior and act according to these interpretations.
Sociologists must therefore find out how people feel or what they think about their
own behavior. To do this, according to Weber, sociologists should adopt a method he
called Verstehan - emphatic understanding of their subjects, sociologists could
obtain an "interpret understanding" of the meanings of a particular behavior. Then, he
said, they should test this understanding through careful observation. Weber also
wrote a Bureaucratic Model also known as Legal-Rational Model. According to him the
characteristics of bureaucracy include specialized roles, recruitment
• based on merit, uniform principles of placement, careerism with systematic salary
structure, hierarchy, responsibility, and accountability, the subjection of official
conduct to strict rules of discipline and control, the supremacy of abstract rules,
impersonal authority, and political neutrality (Thio 2000).
Development of Sociology in the
Philippines
Sociology is gradually developing in the Philippines. There are colleges and
universities that offer both undergraduate and graduate courses in Sociology. Some
of these institutions are the University of the Philippines, the University of Santo
Tomas, and Silliman University. Graduates of the Sociology Program are employed in
different fields such as politics, law, social work, research, and education. In 1952 the
Philippine Sociological Society was founded to further develop and enhance
Sociology in the Philippines. The Philippine Sociological Society's (PSS) primary
mission is to represent, promote, and advance the intellectual and sociological
interests of its members. It is a non-stock, non-profit professional association
registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission. As an inclusive social
science organization, its members come from a range of disciplines whose
professional careers have a fundamental connection to Sociology.