Regulation of

Gene Expression
and

Membrane - Bound
Organelles
(Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Complex, Lysosome and
Peroxisome)

JOSHUA ORTUOSTE & HADJEORIA BELONGAN

 Learning Outcomes
TABLE OF CONTENTS
01 03
Understanding the Fundamentals of Describe the structure and
Regulation Gene Expression and function of the Golgi
Differentiate Between its Various Complex.
Mechanisms.

02 04
Explain the rough and Discuss the functions and
smooth ER and their difference between lysosomes
respective roles. and Peroxisome
 Regulation of Gene Expression

- Gene expression is the process by which information

stored in genes is used to create functional gene
products, such as proteins or RNA molecules.
- Gene expression be thought of as an “on/off switch” to
control when and where RNA molecules and proteins are
made and as a “volume control” to determine how much
of those products are made.
- Gene regulation refers to the mechanisms and processes
that control when, where, and to what extent genes are
turned on (expressed) or off in a cell.
 Steps of Regulation of Gene
Expression
There are two steps involved in the regulation of a
gene expression. These are called transcription (the
reading of the gene) and translation (the building of
the protein).

Transcription
- Transcription is the process of
converting DNA into mRNA
Translation
- Translation involves synthesizing
proteins from mRNA using ribosomes
 Levels of Regulation of Gene Expression

Transcriptional Regulation
- Controls gene activation and RNA
production.
Post-Transcriptional Regulation
- Modifies RNA for stability and function.

Translational Regulation
- Manages RNA-to-protein conversion.
Post-Translational Regulation
- Modifies proteins for activity and
stability.
 Components Involved in Transcriptional Regulation

RNA Polymerase
- Enzyme responsible for copying DNA
into RNA during transcription.
Transcription Factors:
- Proteins that switch genes on or off by
binding to specific DNA sequences.

Promoters and enhancers:

- promoters are like the on/off switch for a gene,
while enhancers are like dimmer switches, fine-
tuning the level of gene expression.
 Components Involved in Post- transcriptional Regulation
RNA Processing:
Splicing- is the process of removing these introns and joining the
protein-coding regions (exons) together.
Capping - The 5' end of the RNA molecule is capped with a modified
guanosine triphosphate (GTP) to protect it and help with translation.
Tailing- The 3' end is often added with a string of adenine (A)
nucleotides called a poly-A tail.
mRNA Stability:
- Degradation rates affect protein production.
MicroRNAs (miRNAs):
MicroRNAs are small RNA molecules that act as gene
expression regulators.
 Components Involved in Translational Regulation

Ribosome Binding:
- Control over ribosome attachment to mRNA.

Start Codon Accessibility:

- Ensuring the proper initiation of translation.

- The codon AUG is called the START codon as it the first codon
in the transcribed mRNA that undergoes translation.
- During protein synthesis, the tRNA recognizes the START codon
AUG with the help of some initiation factors and starts translation of
mRNA.
 Components involved in Post-Translational Regulation

Protein Modifications:
- Chemical changes to proteins, such as
phosphorylation, acetylation, or glycosylation, that
affect their activity, stability, or localization.

Protein Degradation:
- Protein degradation is like the recycling system of our
cells. It involves getting rid of old or damaged proteins that
are no longer needed.
Membrane -bound
organelles
Eukaryotic cells are complex due to membrane-bound
organelles enclosed by phospholipid bilayers, allowing these
compartments to carry out specialized functions within a
controlled environment, contributing to the cell's overall
complexity and efficiency.
What are Cell Organelles?
The cellular components are called cell organelles. These
cell organelles include both membrane and non-membrane
bound organelles, present within the cells and are distinct in
their structures and functions.
What are Cell Organelles?
The Cell wall, Ribosomes, and Cytoskeleton are non-membrane-
bound cell organelles. They are present both in the prokaryotic cell and
the eukaryotic cell.

Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmic Reticulum are single

membrane-bound organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.

Nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast are double membrane-bound

organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.
 The ER and its Derivatives
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a continuous
membrane system that forms a series of flattened
sacs within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
• All eukaryotic cells contain an ER.
In animal cells, the ER usually constitutes more than
half of the membranous content of the cell.

The ER can be classified in two functionally

distinct forms: The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
and the rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER).
 Two types of ER
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Rough ER is named for its
rough appearance, which is due
to the ribosomes attached to its
outer (cytoplasmic) surface.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Smooth ER is more tubular than rough
ER and forms an interconnecting network
sub-compartment of ER. It is found fairly
evenly distributed throughout the
cytoplasm.
 Structure of ER
Vesicles
Cisternal Space (Lumen) - refers to the interior
space or compartment within the ER where various
Tubules cellular processes, such as protein synthesis and
lipid metabolism, occur.
Cisternae - is a flattened, membrane-bound sacs
that play a key role in the synthesis, modification,
and transport of proteins and lipids within the cell.
Vesicle - is a small, membrane-bound sacs that
transport proteins and lipids between different parts
of the endoplasmic reticulum or to other cellular
organelles.
Tubules - is a narrow, elongated membrane
structure that, along with cisternae, make up the
complex network of the ER and play a role in lipid
metabolism and calcium storage.
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

Primarily involved in protein synthesis and Involved in lipid metabolism, including the
modification. synthesis of lipids and steroids.

This is formed of sac-like structures called

This is formed of vesicles and tubules.
cisternae.
It is located in the central cytoplasm, connected to the
It is peripheral, connected to the plasmalemma.
nuclear membrane.

Ribophorin proteins present at the junction Functions in detoxification processes, such as the
between ribosomes and RER breakdown of drugs and toxins.

They are generally found in pancreatic cells. They are generally found in adipose cells.
 The Golgi Complex
OUR PLANS
• Golgi apparatus, also named as Golgi
complex, or Golgi body, is a series of
flattened, stacked, membrane-bound cell
organelle found in all animal and plant cells.

• The name is given on the name of the

scientist, who discovered the organelle, i.e.
Camillo Golgi.

• It receives molecules, changes them, and then categorizes and

addresses them for transport to different cell parts.
Golgi is thus analogous to the post office.
 Five Region of Golgi Apparatus
1. Cis-Golgi network: faces the nucleus, forms a connection with the endoplasmic
reticulum and is the entry point into the Golgi apparatus.
2. Cis-Golgi: The first stack of cisternae where initial modifications to proteins
occur.
3. Medial-Golgi: The middle stacks
S where
W further protein processing and
modifications take place.
O final modifications, sorting, and packaging
4. Trans-Golgi: The last stacks where
into vesicles happen.
5. Trans-Golgi network: exit point for vesicles budding off the golgi surface,
packages and sorts biochemicals into the vesicles according to their destination.
 FUNCTIONS OF GOLGI
COMPLEX :
A. TRANSPORT VESICLES BRING A MOLECULES
from ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

B. MOLECULES FUSE with MEMBRANE & are

SORTED BASED on DESTINATION

C. MOLECULES UNDERGO REMODELING &

MODIFICATIONS in CISTERNAE

D. MODIFIED MOLECULES are SECRETED OUT of

CELL or to ANOTHER ORGANELLE
Lysosomes and
Peroxisomes
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes are
both organelles responsible for
digesting matter within cells.
What is Lysosome?
- Lysosomes are an important cell organelle
found within eukaryotic animal cells. Due to
their peculiar function, they are also known as
the “suicide bags” of the cell.

- The term was coined by Christian de Duve, a

Belgian biologist.

- They break down excess or worn-out cell

parts.

- They may be used to destroy invading viruses

and bacteria.
 Functions of Lysosomes
Autophagy Autolysis
Autophagy is a natural process that
Autolysis refers to the
maintains cellular balance by breaking
digestion of parent cells
down and recycling proteins and
by the lysosomes.
damaged organelles to support the
creation of new cells.
Programmed Cell
Heterophagy
Death
Heterophagy is the process of lysosomal Lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP)
leads to controlled cell death by releasing
digestion of extracellular materials entering the
lysosomal enzymes like Cathepsins B, L, and
cell by the process of phagocytosis, pinocytosis C into the cytoplasm, initiating a cascade
and receptor mediated endocytosis. resulting in programmed cell death (PCD).
 Lysosomes Disease

Gaucher Disease:
• Relatively common among
lysosomal storage disorders.

Symptoms: Include organ enlargement, bone

abnormalities, anemia, and fatigue.

Cause: Mutations in the GBA gene reduce

or eliminate the activity of the enzyme
glucocerebrosidase, leading to Gaucher
Disease.
 What is Peroxisome?

> They are round or oval vesicles surrounded by a

phosolipid bilayer.
> Inside the vesicle are many, many enzymes
>Each cell contains several hundred peroxisomes
> They resemble a lysosome but are not the same
>A peroxisome is found in the cytoplasm of a cell
> The organ that peroxisomes are most abundant in is the liver
 Functions of peroxisomes
• Peroxisomes are essential for
normal brain and lung function; their
absence can lead to brain disorders.

• They protect cells from the harmful

effects of hydrogen peroxide.

• Peroxisomes contain an enzyme

called catalase.

• Catalase breaks down hydrogen

peroxide into oxygen and water,
reducing its toxicity to the cell.

• Peroxisomes detoxify about half of

the alcohol a person drinks daily.
 Peroxisomal Disorder

Zellweger Disorders

• Genetic heterogeneity
• Dysmorphism (large fontanelle, high
forehead, abn ears, micrognathia,
redundant skin folds)

• Seizures
• Ocular abnormalities
• Liver disease
• Death in first year of life
THANK YOU!!