PRODUCTION AND MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Introduction

This unit deals with the types of production systems (in particular jobbing, batch, flow line
and group technology), flexible manufacturing systems (FMS), computer integrated
manufacturing systems (CIM) and transfer line technology.

Learning Objectives

After reading this unit you should be able to:

1. Explain the various types of production techniques.

2. Give reasons for the need for FMS systems and discuss the elements of
FMS
3. Discuss the concept of computer integrated manufacturing systems

Unit content

Session 1-1: Production Systems

1-1.1 Production
1-1.2 Types of Production
Session 2-1: Manufacturing Systems
2-1.1 Functions of Manufacturing
2-1.2 Flexible Manufacturing Systems
2-1.3 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
2-1.4 Transfer Line Technology

SESSION 1-1: PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

1-1.1 Production
Production is the transformation process by which raw materials are converted into finished
goods or products, which have value for the market. The raw materials of one production
process could be the finished product of another production process. This transformation
process usually involves a sequence of steps. Each of these steps brings the materials closer to
the desired finished state. The individual steps are referred to as operations.
 The operations are carried out by different types of industries. There are many ways of
classifying industries. One of these is to place a company/industry under one of these
categories, depending on its final product:

1. Basic Producer

2. Converter

3. Fabricator

The Basic Producer

The basic producer uses natural resources and transforms them into the raw materials used by
other industrial manufacturing firms. For example steel producers transform iron ore into steel
ingots.

The Converter

The converter is the intermediate link in the production chain. It takes the output of the basic
producer and transforms these raw materials into various industrial products and some consume
items.

Examples: Steel ingot is converted into bar stock, iron rod or sheet metal. In the chemical
industry, some chemical firms transform petroleum products into plastics for moulding. For
paper production, paper pulp is made into paper.

Fabricator

The third category is the fabricator. These firms produce and assemble products. For example
bar stock and sheet metal are transformed into machined engine components or automobile
body panels.

Some firms process a high degree of vertical integration, which means, their operations
include all three categories. Example: The major oil firms; for example Shell, converts mineral
oil into finished petroleum products and sells these products directly to the consumer.

In all the three categories mentioned above, the transformation mentioned is made possible
through the use of different manufacturing processes.
 1-1.2 Types of Production
The main types and modes of production are classified by the way and manner in which the
tasks involved in a production process are handled. The types of production are:

1. Job

2. Batch

3. Flow-line and

4. Group Production

It is rare to find only one type of these methods in use in a particular manufacturing firm.

1-1.2.1Job Production
This is the manufacture of a single, one off, or very few products to a customer’s individual
specification. No two jobs are usually alike and orders may not be repeated. Shipbuilding is an
example of job production. In job production, a complete job or product is processed or done
by a worker or group of workers to completion before starting with the next job or product. To
produce a high volume of product using this method, a single purpose machine can be of an
advantage. Single purpose machines are usually designed to do one job only, but to do it very
efficiently. Such machines perform their specialized operations very rapidly; an important
factor in high volume or mass production. Mass production in itself is not a production method.
It describes only the volume or quantity produced within a relatively short time.

EXAMPLE:

• Suppose a shoe maker is making three shoes and finishes work on shoe 1 before starting with
shoe 2, and finishes shoe 2 before starting work on shoe 3.

• In bicycle assembling where one worker or group of workers finish assembling bike 1first
before starting with bike 2 etc.

Advantages:

- High degree of flexibility

- General purpose equipment

Disadvantages:
- High degree of skill and adaptability is required from the workforce and management.

- Scheduling and completion dates are uncertain.

- Use of jigs and fixtures is not usually justified.
- Production control is not easily effected.

1-1.2.2 Batch Production

Batch production is the system of production where parts are manufactured in fixed quantities
called batches. The batches may be small, medium or large in number. Each batch contains a
number of identical parts. In batch production the work on a group of products is divided into
parts or operations and each operation is completed throughout the whole batch before the next
operation is performed. This is the most commonly used method in manufacturing. Batch
production is characterized by the queuing of items in a batch while work is being done on one.
The aim of the batch method is to concentrate on skills and obtain high equipment utilization.

Advantages:

- System flexibility (responsive to quick changes).

- General purpose machine

Disadvantages:

- High work in progress

- Long throughput times
- Difficulty in its organization
- Probability of poor work flow
- Slow completion of work.

1-1.2.3 Flow Production

This is the production system in which large quantities of identical parts are produced. Flow or
flow-line production, unlike batch production eliminates rest, idle and queuing periods of
products in a batch. In this production, the task or processing of material is continuous and
progressive.

It aims at:

1. Improving the work and material flow.

2. Reducing skill concentration.
3. Completing work faster.
 For a flow method to operate efficiently:

1. There should be a constant demand of products.

2. Materials should be delivered on time.
3. The products must be delivered on time.
4. Operations involved in the task must be well defined.
5. Work must meet quality standards.
Advantages

- Low priced standard products

- Simple production planning and control

Disadvantages

- Special purpose machine

- Inflexibility

1-1.2.4 Group Production

In group production, or group technology (GT), similar products or tasks are identified and put
together into a family while the resources required for their production are put together into
groups or cells.

In this method:

1. Planning of work is easier,

2. There is a reduction in the preparatory time,
3. Improvement in social relationships,
4. Management is simpler,
5. Reduction in the need of buffer storage which leads to reduction in
a. stocks
b. storage space
c. work-in-progress (WIP)
6. Lower handling times due to reduction in transport distances
7. Improved learning, resulting in lower processing times
8. Improvement in the effective use of equipment.
The Group or Cell is characterized by:

1. A team – team of workers.

2. Products – a specified ‘family’ or set of products.
3. Facilities – equipped with a particular set of equipment.
4. Layout – facilities are laid out in one area specially reserved for the group.
5. Target – members share a common output target
6. Independence – Groups should be independent of each other.
7. Size – Group size should be limited, based on the technological level. Between 6 to 15 is
recommended but up to 35 is possible.

 Self Assessment 1-1

1. Explain the various types of productions.

2. State and explain the advantages and disadvantages of the types of production.
3. List the key features that may lead to a successful implementation of a flow line
production system
4. Define GT

 Answer tips

1. Small and high volumes

2. Special purpose and dedicated machines

3. Constant demand

4. Family

SESSION 2-1: MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

2-1.1 Functions of Manufacturing

Manufacturing can be defined as the transformation of materials and information into goods
for the satisfaction of human needs. To convert raw materials into finished products that would
satisfy the human needs, certain basic functions must be carried out. For firms engaged in
producing discrete products, the functions are:

1. Processing
2. Assembly
3. Material Handling and Storage
4. Inspection and Test and
5. Control

2-1.1.1 Processing
Processing operations transform the product from one state of completion into a more advanced
state of completion. No materials or components are assembled or added to accomplish the
transformation. Instead, energy (i.e. mechanical, heat, electrical, chemical etc.) is added to
change the shape of the part, remove materials from it, alter its physical properties, or
accomplish other forms of work to change it.

Most manufacturing processes require five inputs:

1. Raw materials
2. Equipment (machine tools)
3. Tooling and Fixtures
4. Energy (electrical energy)
5. Labour

The manufacturing processes produce two main outputs:

1. Completed work-piece
2. Scrap and Waste

The completed work piece is the desired output of the particular manufacturing process. By-
product is scrap and waste. Scrap is in the form of metal chips (machining), skeletons (sheet
metal press working operations), sprue and runner (plastic moulding, metal casting), etc.

2-1.1.2 Assembly Operations

This is the second major type of manufacturing operation. In assembly, two or more separate
components are joined together. The methods used in joining them include:

1. Mechanical fastening, using screws, nuts, rivets, etc.

2. Joining processes like welding, brazing and soldering.
 2-1.1.3 Material Handling and Storage
This is the means of moving and storing materials between the processing, assembly operations
and storage facilities. This function is usually very cost intensive in most manufacturing
industries. This is due to the amount of time involved in the planning of this function.

2-1.1.4 Inspection and Testing

Inspection and testing of products usually fall under quality control. The purpose of inspection
is to determine whether the manufactured product meets the established design standards and
specification. Testing sees to the functional specifications, i.e. final testing ensures that the
product functions and operates in the way specified by the product designer.

2-1.1.5 Control
The control function includes both the regulation of individual processing and assembly
operations, and the management of plant level activities.

At the process level, it involves the achievement of certain performance objectives by proper
manipulation of the inputs to the process.

At the plant level, it includes effective use of:

1. Labour
2. Maintenance of equipment
3. Moving materials in the factory
4. Shipping products of good quality on schedule and
5. Keeping the plant operating costs at the minimum level possible.

This requires a good information processing ability.

2-1.2 Flexible Manufacturing Systems

The Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) employs the Group Technology. An FMS consists
of a group of production cells or equipment (mainly CNC machines), connected by means of a
reprogrammable automated material handling and storage system, and controlled by an
integrated computer system. Most of the FMS in operation today are utilized in machining.
FMS can be constructed with a number of equipment or cells in different combinations. An
example of a small system could be two CNC machines (e.g. lathes) with a common industry
robot, acting as the material handling unit. A large system might contain a dozen or more
machines connected by an appropriate material handling unit, like a conveyor network. Instead
of a conveyor network, an automatic guided vehicle (AGV) system as shown in figure 1.1 that
can convey parts from one machine or equipment to another in any order could be used.

In terms of volume of production, FMS is very good for intermediate volumes of production
and an intermediate variety of parts (part family may vary a little).

Figure 1. 1 Automatic guided vehicle

An FMS may be complicated, but it could be planned and implemented in phases to reduce
capital investment that would have been incurred, if it had been done at a go. For example,
some companies make a series of smaller investments over time to implement FMS. A
company could begin by using CNC machines, then install a linking materials-handling system,
and later develop the central computer and software to coordinate and manage the system.
 Reasons for the need for FMS include:

- Small batch sizes

- Reduction in stock
- Short term delivery

FMS facilitates the manufacture of small batches with low staffing with

- Automatic tool and workpiece handling and storage.

- Material and tool transport
- Buffering for parts and tools

The geometry or nature of the parts (rotational or prismatic) has a critical influence on the
structure of the machining system. The method of handling and interconnecting machines for
rotational parts is different from that of prismatic parts. Prismatic parts are handled by pallets,
rotational parts by gripper systems. Tools included must be available in turrets so as to keep
changeover times short.

FMS incorporates a wide range of technologies. In general FMS will include:

1. Automated material storage and retrieval

2. CNC machines operating under DNC control and incorporating:
o Auto pallet changer (APC)
o Programmable tail stock
o Adaptive control
o Tool breakage detection
o Auto tool changer (ATC)
o Auto work gauging
o Self diagnostics
3. Machining System
o Robot technology
o Load/unloading of tools (for maintenance/use elsewhere)
4. Component transportation system
o AGVs, conveyors etc.
5. Automatic part/pallet identification
o Bar coding
o Programmable micro chips
6. Automatic inspection equipment
o Coordinate measuring machine (CMM)
o Surface measurement
▪ Roughness measurement
o In cycle post process gauging/inspection
7. Coolant/surface processing
8. Tool setting/distribution
9. Component wash stations and de-burring
10. Overall system control
o Mini/mainframe computers coordinating
▪ Data collection/processing
▪ Production control
▪ Operation of PLCs

Figure 1. 2FMS System

Figure 1.2 shows an example of an FMS system. The components and their functions are
considered in sections 2-1.2.1 – 2-1.2.3. The components are basically the production cells, the
material handling unit and the computer system.

2-1.2.1 Processing Cells (Work Stations)

The cell collects into groups the people, processes and machines needed to produce a part
family, typically a complete component or sub-assembly. This is the application of group
technology. Machines involved in this system are mainly NC-machines with automatic loading
and unloading as well as automatic tool changing systems.

Tools
Tools are coded and set in a special ‘magazine’ to allow for identification and loading when
necessary.

Parts

Parts are loaded on special pallets which are fed into the machine with the appropriate computer
program for identification of the parts. Finished parts are automatically brought out of the
machines to be off-loaded. The parts are grouped into families to facilitate less frequency in
tool changing.

Personnel

Work on the FMS requires high skill. The major work done by humans is the loading of raw
parts unto the system and unloading finished parts (or assemblies) from the system, changing
and setting tools, equipment maintenance and repair, NC-part programming as well as the
operation of the computer systems.

Machines

Most of the machines used in the manufacturing cells are highly sophisticated and automated.
These include head indexers, head changers, industrial robots, coordinate measuring machines,
NC machines, etc.

Machine Centres

CNC-machine centres are stand-alone machines capable of performing highly automated

operations. The operations may include: milling, turning, drilling, tapping, etc.

In an FMS, CNC-machines possess other features like automatic tool changing and tool
storage, use of palletized work-parts, CNC-control and in some cases also DNC-control.

DNC is a direct numerical control central machine/computer that distributes programs to NC-
machines.

Head Changers

They are special machine tools with capability to change tool heads. The tool heads are usually
multiple-spindle tool modules that can be stored on a rack or drum on the machine or close to
it. They are used to perform multiple drilling and machine operations on one work-piece.

Head Indexers
 They are similar to head changers, except that the tool heads are larger. The heads are attached
semi-permanently to an indexing mechanism on the machine tool. Thus they can be rotated
into position to perform the simultaneous operations on a part (limited to FMS processing a
specific family of parts).

Assembly Workstation

These are usually Industrial Robots. They can be programmed to perform different tasks with
complicated sequence and motion pattern.

Inspection Station

This can be a station for inspection only or may be incorporated in the FMS system. Coordinate
measuring machines, machine vision, and special inspection probes used in a machine spindle
are the three (3) methods commonly used for inspection in an FMS.

2-1.2.2 Material Handling and Storage Unit

Another major component of FMS is the material handling and storage system. Its main
functions are:

1. To provide temporary storage (on machines or beside machines).

2. Provide convenient access for loading and unloading work pieces.
3. Good communication with control computer.
4. Work piece handling (fixtures on pallets which allow quick accommodation of parts).
5. Random and independent movements of work pieces between stations. Different conveyor
systems are provided to allow for transportation of work-pieces from one station to another for
further processing.
FMS layout
Work stations or cells are arranged in different ways on the production floor. The layout is
made with a particular material handling method in mind. The most common layout types with
their respective material handling are:

1. In-line
2. Loop
3. Ladder
4. Open field
5. Robot-centred cell
In-line FMS Layout
It is most appropriate for systems in which parts progress from one station to another in a well
defined sequence. It may be modified to allow for ‘back-flow’.

Figure 1. 3 In-line FMS Layout

Loop FMS Layout

Figure 1. 4Loop FMS Layout

Work flow is in one direction around the loop with the capacity of stopping at any station.

Ladder FMS Layout

 Figure 1. 5Ladder FMS Layout

This is an adoption and improvement on the loop system. It reduces the coverage travel distance
and time.

Open-field FMS layout

It is an adaptation of the loop configuration consisting of loops, ladder and sidings, specially
organized to meet the production requirements. It is usually employed in the manufacture of
large family of parts.

Robot-centred Cell

This is a flexible system in which one or more industrial robots are used as the handling system.
These robots can be equipped with different tools (grippers) that make them suitable for
handling rotational parts. Thus, they are employed to process cylindrical or disc shaped parts.

Figure 1. 6 Robotized cell

2-1.2.3 Functions of the computer in FMS

The most important functions of the computer in FMS are:
1. To control each workstation. A CNC is used to control the individual machine tools.
2. Distribution of control instructions to workstations. DNC is used to store, edit and transfer
programs to the work stations.
3. Production control: It plans as to which parts are loaded on pallets and fed into a machine, and
the length of production time. A terminal at the load/unload area provides a means of
communication of the operators with the computer.
4. Traffic control: The control of work-piece movements between stations.
5. Tool control: Monitoring of cutting tool status, i.e. track keeping and tool-life monitoring.
6. Shuttle control:
► Regulation of secondary part handling system at each machine tool (i.e. cell specific handling).
► Coordination with Primary handling unit and synchronizing with machine tool.
7. Work handling Systems Unit: Monitoring of each cart or pallet in both Primary and Secondary
handling systems as well as status of the work pieces.
8. System performance monitoring: It is capable of generating various reports desired by
management, depending on programs fed to it.
The reports could be:
► Utilization reports
► Production reports
► Status reports
► Tool reports

2-1.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of FMS

FMS is a very good and helpful system, but it has its own merits and demerits.

Advantages of FMS include:

1. High machine utilization (flexible manufacture).

2. Less number of machines required.
3. Less investment in inventory (less machines implies less inventory).
4. Easier production planning and control.
5. Smaller amount of floor space required.
6. Reduced work-in-progress (no batch work).
7. Faster customer deliveries, due to shorter response time.
8. Flexibility in scheduling (Random order) quick charges is possible.
9. Consistent quality assurance.
10. High labour productivity or reduced direct labour.
11. Upgrading of qualification (schooling).
 Disadvantages of FMS include:
1. High capital investment.
2. Layoffs and unemployment.
3. High qualification recruitment.
4. Takes long (approx. 5 years) to plan and implement.
5. The variety and sizes of tools is limited. They would have to be kept within the capacity of the
automatic tool changers.
6. There is often the need of standardization of parts designs to reduce the number of tools
required. This could be a limitation in the design process.

2-1.3 Computer – Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

FMS concepts link some of the activities in manufacturing. Basically all FMS systems link
material handling with the processing processes. However, sometimes FMS systems may also
include inspection.

There is the wish to link more and more manufacturing activities for efficient production. This
wish, called Integration, is partly achieved by the use of CAD/CAM to develop the data base
that contains the design data and process plans. A better degree of integration is achieved with
computer integrated manufacturing.

Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) is a concept of linking and coordinating a broad

spectrum of activities in a manufacturing business through an integrated computer system. That
is, in brief the use of computers to link and coordinate manufacturing activities. This is different
from the integration obtained with the CAD/CAM only, because of the inclusion of business
activities. Such business activities may include procurement, accounting, payroll information,
billing, order entry, information from marketing, shipping, etc.

The CIM is basically the integration of information from:

1. the core manufacturing activities:
a. Engineering Support,
This may include:
i. computer-aided engineering
ii. computer-aided design
iii. computer-aided process planning
 iv. group technology coding
v. manufacturing engineering
b. Operations Management
This may include:

i. master scheduling sub-systems

ii. capacity planning
iii. material requirements planning
iv. inventory control
v. purchasing
vi. direct numerical control (DNC)
vii. shop-floor control
viii. quality reporting
ix. maintenance
x. shipping and
xi. distribution

Business activities
Table 1. 1: CIM including Business Activities

CIM

CAD CAM
Business Activities
Planning Control
Procurement Engineering Capacity planning
analysis Process controls
Accounting Material planning
Shop-floor control
Order entry Drafting Computer-aided
process planning Computer-aided
Payroll inspection
Design review NC part
Billing programming
Manufacturing Activities:
etc.
 Material handling, fabrication, assembly, inspection,
Maintenance

The full CIM system connects all these activities that a production company uses, and by so
doing provide a common data base and a good bi-directional communication between the
individual components and systems, enabling the entire operation to work together as an
integrated whole.

BENEFITS OF CIM

CIM improves production productivity by 40 to 70 percent, as well as enhances engineering

productivity and quality. CIM can also decrease design costs by 15 to 30 percent, reduce overall
lead time by 20 to 60 percent, and cut work-in-process inventory by 30 to 60 percent. Managers
who use CIM believe that there is a direct relationship between the efficiency of information
management and the efficiency and the overall effectiveness of the manufacturing enterprise.
CIM programs focus attention on the efficiency of information management and the problems
that come with it instead of developing new and more sophisticated manufacturing machines,
material transformation processes, manufacturing management processes, and production
facilities. Computer-integrated manufacturing can be applied to nonmanufacturing
organizations by changing the manufacturing focus toward a service orientation.

2-1.3.1 Integration Problems

The integration of all the hardware and software at both the secondary and primary levels of
CIM poses a lot of challenges. Equipment used in a company may be supplied by different
vendors. Bringing all these different systems together in a network may call for difficulties in
communication between the systems. The meaning of particular signals or electronic impulses
from one vendor’s system, may mean something different for a system from another vendor,
and may thus be misinterpreted.

Special translators called postprocessors may be required to convert data to the proper form.
Data communication therefore requires some standardization of signals and equipment to
minimize these problems. One of such standards is the Manufacturing Automation Protocol
(MAP). It has helped and enabled a better communication between manufacturing equipment
such as conveyors and industrial robots, especially robot welders.
On the other hand, planning and coordinating the work of several machines that perform
different types of jobs also poses a big challenge. Many decisions have to be taken and
necessary action taken at the human interfaces, since they may be so complex that they may
require human decision support; but this slows down the system since it would have to wait for
human analysis of some situation which may be rather slow. The introduction of systems that
can handle this problem is desirable. Artificial Intelligence tends to solve this problem.

2-1.3.2 Artificial Intelligence (AI)

The human interfaces mentioned above, could ideally, be replaced by specially programmed
computers to ‘reason’ and solve problems faster than could otherwise be solved by humans. A
branch of computer science that attempts to give computers the ability to understand language,
to solve problems that call for reasoning, and to learn to emulate human methods of learning
and of solving problems is Artificial Intelligence (AI).

AI systems are, to a good extent, able to perform tasks that otherwise must be done by humans
and are able to produce adequate solutions. Computers process data, make logical conclusions
and mathematical calculations faster than the human brain. Another good thing about them is,
they do not become fatigued and bored by repetitious tasks. Properly programmed computers,
like AI systems, could therefore be considered to be ‘smarter’ than humans at many tasks.

However, for tasks involving creativity or for which new rules or insights must be developed,
computers may not be as successful as humans.

AI’s ability to use incomplete data, through its ability to ‘reason’ makes it more flexible than
other conventional computer systems. When used in CIM they provide a better flexibility,
especially in operations that demand much flexibility. This flexibility characteristic of AI has
earned it the name “enabling technology for true CIM”.

2-1.4 Transfer Line Technology

A transfer line is a fixed-path conveyor with single-purpose equipment mounted along the
sides. The conveyor of the transfer line moves the parts on it forward one work station at a
time. They are indexed accurately into position for the machines to perform work. The
machines operate and perform the work on the parts; then the parts are all moved forward one
more work station, etc. until the work is complete. The parts are then off-loaded from the
 conveyor. A transfer line is a very economical way to produce large volumes of products (mass
production) with little or no variety, in other words, to produce identical or nearly identical
items.

Installation can only be cost effective and economically justified if the product on the line is in
high demand. Therefore, before setting up a transfer line, it is important to find out whether
demand for the product will continue. Another important thing is to balance the processing
time at each station to approximately the same time span to reduce idle time. The period of a
cycle is determined by the longest operation at any one of the stations.

The single-purpose equipment or machines used in a transfer line are usually referred to as
transfer machines.

2-1.4.1 Transfer Machines

A transfer machine is an automatic machine which indexes or transfers the work-piece and its
fixture from station to station while many operations are performed on it. It could be described
as a combined material processing and material handling machine. Usually, two operators are
required to run the machine. One loads and controls it while the other unloads the work and
stacks it or pushes it on a conveyor to be processed further.

There are three basic types of transfer machines, depending on their arrangement; other types
may be a modification or a combination of these three basic types, namely:

1. Rotary indexing table transfer machines

2. Drum type transfer machines
3. In-line transfer machines

Rotary indexing table transfer machines

In this type of arrangement, work is transferred around a circular ‘line’, and through this, gives
a more compact arrangement to save production floor space. The machining heads are arranged
around the periphery of the circle at equal intervals as shown in figure 1.7. A fast and precise
rotary indexing table is used in transferring components from fixed station of machining heads.
This type of arrangement is usually small in size. Depending on design requirements and size
of components to be produced, this kind of arrangement can take four to sixteen stations.

Drum type transfer machines

 This type of arrangement, like the rotary indexing arrangement, is usually small in size. Here
the work fixtures are fastened to the outside surface or periphery of the drum. Work stations
are positioned radially around the circular path at equal intervals. The work hangs from the
fixture; therefore the clamping arrangement must be fool proof and efficient.

In-line transfer machines

In this arrangement, several machining heads are arranged across the straight line on the sides
of a pitch of nearly one meter and components flow in the middle of two rows of machines
along guided rails, as shown in figure 1.9.Machines could be arranged in L-shape, square or
rectangular pattern if space does not permit a strictly linear arrangement. The conveyor for
transferring components could either run over, under or around the transfer machine. The work
may be loaded either manually or automatically onto the machine and it is transferred by equal
pitch movements from station to station, where it is located and clamped. All types of
machining operations are carried out at various stations and the chips produced are removed.
In case there is a jam up of components, automatic safety device operates and all machines
come to a stop. Such an arrangement is very popular in the automobile industries.

General characteristics and functions of transfer machines

The design of a layout of transfer machine is dictated by the available floor space and the
component to be produced. The principle of specialisation, standardisation and
interchangeability are followed in design of transfer machines. The cycle of each machine
commences simultaneously with those of others. The whole line is set into operation by a single
switch. The various movements are all automatic and controlled by limit switches. The transfer
machines and transfer systems are designed to perform the following functions and in the
sequence given:

1. Transfer of the work from station to station.

● All the components are moved to the next machine simultaneously by the transfer mechanism.

2. Locate the fixture at each station and clamp it in position.

● Clamping devices automatically come into operation to locate the work or platen accurately
under the machine and then clamp it to the table.

● The machine head incorporates means of locating and securing the platen.

3. Move the tools rapidly to the work for the approach portion of the machine time.
 ● The head commences to descend rapidly.

4. Move the tools slowly into the work for the cutting portion of the cycle.
● When it has come into contact with the work, it moves at cutting feed.

5. Return the tool rapidly to clear the work.

● After completion of the operation, the tools are withdrawn at a fast traverse.

6. (Other operations could be dwell period, a reciprocating motion for clearing of swarf when
drilling deep holes, etc.)
7. Unclamp the work from the fixture and indicate that the station is clear for the next work-piece
to be worked on.
● When the tools of the head employing the longest time cycle have withdrawn, the clamps are
released.
8. Transfer movement starts again to repeat the cycle.

The operations that are usually performed on the machines are: drilling, boring, counter-boring,
reaming, tapping, counter-sinking, chamfering, face milling, spotting, hollow milling, gauging,
air pressure testing, blowing out, or dumping chips, rolling over or revolving work.

A very important requirement of the transfer system of the machine is that:

► Distances between the centres of all the machine heads must be identical.
► That the stroke and position of the transfer pawls must be arranged to deliver every platen,
pallet, jig plate etc. (depending on which is convenient and specially designed for mounting
and carrying the work) to a precise position under each machine.
► The system should be inter-connected with the time cycle of the machines and interlocks or
other means provided to ensure that the platens are not moved until the last tool is clear of the
work.
► That the spindle cannot descend until the transfer movement is completed.

Figure 1. 7 Rotary Indexing Transfer Machine Arrangement

Figure 1. 8Drum Transfer Machine arrangement

 Figure 1. 9 In-line transfer system arrangement

Advantages of transfer machines

Transfer machines and for that matter transfer lines, have the following advantages:

1. They can handle very heavy components and components of extremely awkward sizes and
shapes. No manual handling of work is involved except loading and unloading.
2. Operator fatigue is practically eliminated and the need for operators can also be reduced. This
reduces labour cost.
3. Work-in-process is reduced.
4. Transportation distance and time is reduced.
5. Output is considerably increased; the speed of output can be easily varied to ensure balanced
production with other departments.
6. Considerable floor space can be saved by eliminating the close grouping of machines.
7. Control of the work passing through the shop is simplified. For example output from the line
could be increased or reduced, as desired, merely by altering the time cycle of the longest
operation. If output is to be increased, extra operators may be employed and vice versa.
8. It is relatively flexible and can be arranged to suit modifications in the design of the
components. Some idle space is generally left in the line for insertion of extra machines,
required to meet some design specifications in a component.
9. The plant can be disassembled and rebuilt to suit other work-pieces, if the component for which
it is already designed becomes obsolete or runs out of demand. It is, however, worth noting
that the line is specifically designed for one particular component and cannot be used for other
types of work.
10. Specialisation and integration of operations is achieved.
11. The life of cutting tools may be extended considerably. This reduces hold-up due to resetting
and replacement costs. This is so due to the fact that in the transfer line, all machines follow
the same cycle; therefore the machines meant for shorter time operations are made to work at
lower speeds and feeds, instead of working fast and waiting for the ones with the longest
operations on the line. Due to the use of lower speeds and feeds, the tool life is increased.
12. Greater overall accuracy is obtained because the work is integral with the fixture throughout.

Disadvantages of transfer machines

1. Initial investment cost is very high.

2. The electrical networking in the system is rather complex.
3. A breakdown of one machine affects all machines in the line. All the machines in the line that
are in good condition would also have to be idle since they cannot be worked alone. The whole
line must function together. This implies huge losses would have to be tolerated.
4. It is limited to high volume production industries.
5. Transfer machines are not flexible. They can, usually, produce one product and one product
only, and that in large quantities.
6. Redesigning the line to change the product is expensive.
7. Generally when a product is changed, the machine must be scrapped or reshuffled at very high
cost.

2-1.4 .2 Mechanically Integrated Transfer lines

Integration today is mainly linked with the use of computers and electronic controllers to
automate manufacturing. At the onset of automation, however, the trend was usually, to
 automate the transportation of parts between various machines and workstations. An automated
flow line or transfer line consists of several machines or workstations, linked by work handling
devices to transfer parts automatically. The raw work parts enter the line at one end and are
processed sequentially along the transfer-line until it at the other end of the flow line. Buffer
storage zones may be incorporated in between stations, if required.

The flow pattern of operations may be either in-line type depending on the application, or rotary
type. The latter type is commonly limited to smaller work-pieces and fewer stations. The
flexibility in rotary type configuration is less but it occupies less factory floor space. The in-
line type is suited for larger work-pieces that need larger number of workstations.

 Self Assessment 2-1

1. List and discuss the various functions of manufacturing

2. What is Cellular Manufacturing?

3. Describe the key elements of FMS

4. List the disadvantages of transfer machines

 Answer tips
1. Producer

2. Families

3. Workstation, material handling

4. Cost

Learning Track Activities

  Unit Summary
1.In job production, a complete job or product is processed or done by a worker or group of
workers to completion before starting with the next job or product. To produce a high volume
of product using this method, a single purpose machine can be of an advantage. Single purpose
machines are usually designed to do one job only, but to do it very efficiently. In batch
production the work on a group of products is divided into parts or operations and each
operation is completed throughout the whole batch before the next operation is performed. This
is the most commonly used method in manufacturing. Batch production is characterized by the
queuing of items in a batch while work is being done on one. Flow or flow-line production,
unlike batch production eliminates rest, idle and queuing periods of products. In group
production, or group technology, similar products or tasks are identified and put together into
a family while the resources required for their production are put together into groups or cells.

2. Reasons for the need for FMS include:

- Small batch sizes

- Reduction in stock
- Short term delivery

FMS incorporates a wide range of technologies. In general FMS will include:

- Automated material storage and retrieval

- CNC machines operating under DNC control and incorporating:
o Auto pallet changer (APC)
o Programmable tail stock
o Adaptive control
o Tool breakage detection
o Auto tool changer (ATC)
o Auto work gauging
o Self diagnostics
- Machining System
o Robot technology
o Load/unloading of tools (for maintenance/use elsewhere)
- Component transportation system
o AGVs, conveyors etc.
- Automatic part/pallet identification
o Bar coding
o Programmable micro chips
- Automatic inspection equipment
o Coordinate measuring machine (CMM)
o Surface measurement
▪ Roughness measurement
o In cycle post process gauging/inspection
- Coolant/surface processing
- Tool setting/distribution
- Component wash stations and de-burring
- Overall system control
o Mini/mainframe computers coordinating
▪ Data collection/processing
▪ Production control
▪ Operation of PLCs

3. FMS concepts link some of the activities in manufacturing. Basically all FMS systems link
material handling with the processing processes. There is the wish to link more and more
manufacturing activities for efficient production. This wish, called Integration, is partly
achieved by the use of CAD/CAM to develop the data base that contains the design data and
process plans. A better degree of integration is achieved with computer integrated
manufacturing. Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) is a concept of linking and
coordinating a broad spectrum of activities in a manufacturing business through an integrated
computer system. That is, in brief the use of computers to link and coordinate manufacturing
activities. This is different from the integration obtained with the CAD/CAM only, because of
the inclusion of business activities. Such business activities may include procurement,
accounting, payroll information, billing, order entry, information from marketing, shipping,
etc.

 Key terms/ New Words in Unit

1. FMS: Flexible Manufacturing System

2. CIM: Computer Integrated Manufacturing

3. AG: Automatic Guided Vehicle

4. DNC: Direct Numerical Control

 (choose an appropriate activity and give detail instructions)


• Review Question:[insert details of review question]


• Discussion Question:[insert details of discussion question]


•

•
Web Activity:[insert details of web Activity or online v-classroom]

Reading: [insert details of literature for reading]


• Interactive CD: [insert details of interactive CD]

Unit Assignments 1
1. Design an FMS system for the manufacture of a product of your choice
highlighting all the necessary elements

2. Discuss the key benefits of CIM