eat] INTRODUCTION When an aircraft flies close to a surface (e.g. ground or water) the lift, drag, and stability characteristics change significantly. The changes are collectively known as ground effect. Ground Effect ocours whenever an aircraft is one wingspan or less above the surface and is considered noticeable when at or below ¥4 wingspan of the surface. The closer to the surface, the more pronounced the effect. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUND EFFECT Ground effect occurs because the surface alters the airflow pattem around the wings. Primarily, the surface restricts the formation of the wingtip vortices (Fig. 11.1). FIG. 11.1 This results in a reduction in the amount of induced downwash behind the wing and increases the wing's effective angle of attack (Fig. 11.2). INOREAGED UFT IncgeABen EFrEcrVE "ANGLE OF ATTACK FIG. 11.2 Principles Of Flight (Rev Q407) 144Chapter 11 Ground Effect It also alters the pressure distribution around the wing and the amount of lft developed. This occurs because the change in effective angle of attack increases the wing's coefficient of lift (C.) and thus its lifting capability at any given angle of attack. The aircraft also stalls at a lower angle of attack when flying in ground effect. (Fig. 11.3) Drag or Thrust Required ‘Available Stalling Speed Vino Airspeed FIG. 11.3 The magnitude of the wing tip vortices, and thus downwash, also determine the amount of induced drag produced by the wing. The closer the aircraft is to the surface, the greater the reduction in induced drag at any given angle of attack (Fig. 11.4). > o + “boa 02 03 04 a5 05 a7 08 09 40 41 RATIOOF WING HEIGHTTOSPAN, 1 FIG. 11.4 The reduction in induced drag is approximately 1% at a height of one wingspan above the surface, decreasing to 50% at a height of one tenth of the wingspan. This effect is therefore significant, very close to the runway on take off and landing, 112 Principles Of Flight (Rev Q407)Ground Effect Chapter 11 Aircraft Out of Ground Thrust Required] "et ) ‘Alreraft In Ground Effect Velocity (Knots) FIG. 11.5 The second characteristic associated with ground effect is the change in aircraft trim and stability This occurs because the surface deflects the downwash acting behind the wing, thus altering the angle at which the airflow meets the tailplane (Fig. 11.6) REDUCED DOWN LOAD DOWNWASH DOWNWASH PATH OUT DOWNWASH PATH ‘OF GROUND EFFECT GROUND EFFECT FIG. 11.6 This places the tailplane at a less negative, or increased angle of attack, and reduces the download acting on the tailplane. In this condition, the aircraft experiences a nose-down pitching ‘moment, although high T talled aircraft do not respond in this manner, since the tailplane Is outside the influence of the downwash. Principles Of Flight (Rev 407) 113Chapter 14 _ Ground Effect THE INFLUENCE OF GROUND EFFECT ON LANDING When an aircraft enters ground effect during the landing phase of flight, the sudden increase in lift land reduction in drag cause it to experience a floating tendency. The aircraft also tends to pitch nose-down due to the reduction in download on the tailplane. THE INFLUENCE OF GROUND EFFECT ON TAKE-OFF During the take-off phase of flight, as the aircraft leaves ground effect the wing tip vortices rapidly {grow in magnitude producing an increase in downwash behind the wing. This causes a reduction in the lift produced at a given angle of attack and the associated rapid increase in induced drag may prevent a successful take-off. The increased downwash acting on the tailplane increases the download, resulting in a nose-up pitching moment. Do not attempt to take-off at speeds less than the designated take-off speed, because even though the aircraft may be able to fly in ground effect, it will be unable to climb out of it, The aircraft may even sink as it fies out of ground effect, resettling on the ground. THE INFLUENCE OF GROUND EFFECT ON TRAILING EDGE FLAPS ‘When flying in ground effect with the trailing edge flaps deflected, the surface increases the adverse pressure gradient over the flap, and also induces earlier separation of the airflow (Fig. 11.7). FLOW SEPARATION AT FLAP. FIG. 14.7 This significantly reduces the maximum lift capability of the wing, compared to that obtained outside ground effect. This is one of the main reasons why STOL aircraft are manufactured with a high wing configuration 11-4 Principles Of Flight (Rev Q407)