REVIEW ARTICLE | DECEMBER 22 2020

A review of the state-of-the-art nanofluid spray and jet

impingement cooling 
Praveen Kumar Tyagi; Rajan Kumar  ; Pranab Kumar Mondal 

Physics of Fluids 32, 121301 (2020)

https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0033503

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 Physics of Fluids REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf

A review of the state-of-the-art nanofluid spray

and jet impingement cooling
Cite as: Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503
Submitted: 16 October 2020 • Accepted: 24 November 2020 •
Published Online: 22 December 2020

Praveen Kumar Tyagi,1,a) Rajan Kumar,1,b) and Pranab Kumar Mondal2,b)

AFFILIATIONS
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab 144011, India
2
Microfluidics and Microscale Transport Processes Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam 781039, India

a)
E-mail: tyagipraveenmech@gmail.com
b)
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed: pranabm@iitg.ac.in, mail2pranab@gmail.com, and rajank@nitj.ac.in

ABSTRACT
Nanofluid spray/jet impingement cooling is widespread and finds applications in many scientific and industrial paradigms. Because of these
ubiquities of nanofluid spray/jet impingement cooling, this branch of fluid dynamics has attracted great attention from the scientific commu-

05 August 2023 12:20:12

nity. The performance of nanofluid spray/jet impingement cooling very often depends on the nanoparticle concentration, shape, and size of
the nanoparticle, as well as the mass flow rate of the nanofluid. These aspects lead to interesting variants of the thermo-hydrodynamic anal-
ysis of the nanofluid, which are studied meticulously, and some new functionalities are established such as high heat flux removal capacity,
temperature uniformity, lower flow rate demand, and no thermal resistance to the heated test surface. We provide an overview of nanofluid
spray/jet impingement cooling with an emphasis on the parametric effects, such as the Reynolds number, jet to test surface distance, the
Prandtl number, the confinement of the jets, test plate inclination, and the roughness of the test surface, on the underlying phenomenon.
Also, we aptly discuss the essential features of the nanofluid spray/jet impingement cooling, which includes spray properties, cooling fluid
properties, substrate properties, and environmental conditions, which affect the heat transfer of spray cooling.
Published under license by AIP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0033503., s

Nomenclature L length of the test plate

ln length of the nanotube
List of symbols M mass flow rate (kg/s)
AT test surface area (m2 ) Nu Nusselt number
B width of the test plate Pr Prandtl number
Cp specific heat (J/kg K) PPump pumping power
DT target/test surface diameter Q volume flow rate of the nanofluid
d diameter of the spray nozzle Qa volume flux of the nanofluid
dn diameter of the solid nanoparticle Re Reynolds number
d32 Sauter mean droplet diameter Tf cooling fluid temperature (K)
E modulus of elasticity (N/m2 ) Ts test surface temperature (K)
Eattaractive van der Waals potential (attractive) T sat saturation temperature of fluid
Erepulsive repulsive potential t thickness of the test plate
G mass flux (kg/m2 s) tc cooling time (s)
h heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K) uf velocity of jet
Hz spray head/standoff distance vr radial velocity
k thermal conductivity (W/m K) vz axial velocity

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503 32, 121301-1

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We Weber number incomparable advantages to provide the high HF removal capa-

∆t f impact duration time of fluid (s) bility in the aforementioned applications requiring low cool-
∆t nf impact duration time of nanofluid (s) ing fluid requirement and maintaining temperature uniformity
∆t s impact duration time of nanoparticle (s) at the heated surface (Labergue et al., 2015). Third, these tech-
niques can reduce the thickness of the thermal boundary layer
Abbreviations on the test surface (TS) to get a higher heat transfer coefficient
(HTC) between the test surface and the spraying/impinging fluid
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
(Liu and Lienhard, 1993).
BF base fluid
Underlying cooling phenomena and its typical applications are
CHF critical heat flux
reported by many researchers in the open literature from both the
CNTs carbon nanotubes
experimental investigations and numerical simulations (Karwa et al.,
CPU central processing unit
2007; Xu et al., 2012; Horacek et al., 2005; Liang and Mudawar,
DA dispersing agent
2017; Lorenzo et al., 2011; Manca et al., 2011; Gherasim et al.,
DSA dissolving salt additive
2011; Roy et al., 2004; and Florin et al., 2020). Indeed, the perti-
DWCNT double wall carbon nanotubes
nent literature contains an extensive description of several opera-
HAS high alcohol surfactants
tional and fundamental issues of both spray and jet impingement
HF heat flux
cooling methods. In spray cooling, the feature of the fluid dynam-
HT heat transfer
ics is that droplets impinged on the heated TS with the help of the
HTC heat transfer coefficient
spray nozzle. The underlying heat transfer takes place in two regimes
HTR heat transfer rate
that are boiling and non-boiling (Karwa et al., 2007). In the boiling
IHC inverse heat conduction
regime, the test surface temperature (T s ) is more than the satu-
LDH layered double hydroxide
ration temperature of the spraying fluid, while in the non-boiling
lpm liters per minute
regime, T s is less than that of the spraying fluid. The spray pattern is
MWCNT multiwall carbon nanotubes
defined as the shape of the cooling fluid released from the pressur-
NP nanoparticle
ized source, i.e., the nozzle. There are two different classes of spray
PC personal computer
nozzles as per the industrial application and can be categorized as
PDA phase Doppler anemometry
pressure-atomized and air-atomized nozzles (Horacek et al., 2005).

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PID proportional–integral derivative
The pressure-atomized nozzles use highly pressurized liquids to gen-
PIV particle image velocimetry
erate the spray, while the air-atomized nozzles use highly pressurized
PVP polyvinyl pyrrolidone
air to form the spray and breakup of fluids. Depending upon the dis-
ST surface tension
tribution of droplets on the test surface, there are popularly three
WEDM wire electric discharge machining
types of pressure-atomized nozzles such as the full cone spray noz-
WF working fluid
zle, hollow cone spray nozzle, and flat spray nozzles. Full cone spray
nozzles distribute the droplets on the entire impact circle, while hol-
Greek symbols low cone nozzles distribute the droplets on the periphery of the
ϕm mass fraction circle and flat spray nozzles produce the oval impact area. A good
ϕv volume fraction of the nanoparticle spray pattern improves the efficiency and effectiveness of the spray
ϕw weight fraction cooling technique. Several operating conditions, e.g., flow configu-
α spray cone angle rations and characteristic features of spray, suggesting the best cool-
μ dynamic viscosity (N s/m2 ) ing performance of the underlying cooling have been well reported
ν Poisson ratio (Liang and Mudawar, 2017).
ρ density (kg/m3 ) Impinging jets can be classified as submerged and free surface
jets. If a fluid jet impinged in a region having the same fluid medium,
it is known as a submerged jet. On the contrary, the fluid jet impinges
I. INTRODUCTION
in a region of less dense fluid known as the free surface jet. Gener-
Spray and jet impingement cooling refer to the configurations ally, the free surface jets are used to attain a higher localized heat
and methods for the removal of high heat fluxes (HF). Studies transfer rate (HTR). Table I indicates that the two-phase cooling
of such heat transport-related phenomena have long been part of technique has high HF compared to single-phase cooling. Therefore,
the thermal-fluid sciences and involve several classical aspects of two-phase spray cooling and jet impingement cooling methods are
thermo-hydrodynamics (Kandlikar and Bapat, 2007). This subject best to dissipate high HF.
has received significant attention because of several issues as fol- The circular and slot are the main two configurations used
lows: first, promising potential for controlling the temperature in for jet impingement cooling systems in state-of-the-art applications
high-power applications for the window of length scales such as (Florin et al., 2020). The difference between these configurations
microelectronic chips, hot rolling steel mill, laser diode array, pulsed was that in the first case, the jet has an axisymmetric velocity pro-
power weapons systems, avionics systems, phased-array radars, the file, and for the latter having a plane 2D velocity profile, the jet was
core of a nuclear reactor, the external wall of the combustion engine, wide and thin. Therefore, the slot jet configuration cooling system
gas turbine, annealing and quenching of the metals, and tempering has advantages over the circular jet configuration due to superior
of the glass (Cheng et al., 2011; Trainer et al., 2013) and, second, uniformity, high cooling usefulness, and additional controllability.

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503 32, 121301-2

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TABLE I. Comparison of different single-phase and two-phase cooling methods.

Single-phase/ Heat transfer Maximum heat Heat transfer

S. no. two-phase cooling mechanism flux (W/cm2 ) coefficient (W/cm2 K) References

1 Single-phase Natural convection 0.1–3 0.1 Anderson and Mudawar (1989)

2 Single-phase Free air convection 15 0.0005–0.0025 Mudawar (2001)
3 Single-phase Forced air convection 35 0.001–0.025 Mudawar (2001)
4 Single-phase Micro-channel 790 N/A Tuckerman and Pease (1981)
5 Two-phase Subcooled flow boiling 129 2 Sturgis and Mudawar (1999)
6 Two-phase Spray cooling 1200 20–40 Pais et al. (1992)
7 Two-phase Jet impingement 1820 28 Overholt et al. (2005)

Having a comparison between the pulsating and steady impinging
jets, it was observed that pulsating impinging jets have an advan-
tage over the steady jets because oscillating flow periodically alters
the flow pattern (Xu et al., 2012). Therefore, the use of periodic jet
can eliminate the formation of a static stagnation point and aug-
ment the disturbance of fluid flow. Many studies reported in the
literature have focused on several characteristics of the jet, (a) its
dynamics, which include its formation, mixing with the fluid of the
medium (Ayyappan et al., 2020), (b) temperature of the incom-
ing jet (Ayyappan et al., 2020), and (c) the geometrical parame-
ters on the synthetic jet (Hong et al., 2020). Rioboo et al. (2001)
documented the morphology of droplet impingement on the dry
remains attached to the test surface, while some part rebounds from
the surface. Figure 1 shows the droplet impact regimes on the dry
test surface. When a drop hits the test surface, it spreads to its max-
imum diameter laterally, then recoils, and, at last, bounds off the
surface. The most important parameter for the spreading during the
drop impact is the maximum diameter of the droplet because it is
an indication of the available surface area for the HT. Therefore, as
the drop impacts the test surface, the kinetic energy of the drop in
the vertical direction converted into the radial direction for spread-
ing, and then, recession takes place, which involves the contraction
of the droplet after achieving the maximum diameter by the drop
in the radial direction. The recession depends upon the surface ten-

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horizontal test surface and recognized the six probable outcomes.
There was a drop in the deposition on the dry surface; however,
the increase in the impact velocity promotes prompt splash on the
rough surface and there was the endorsement of the corona splash
over the prompt splash on decreasing the surface tension (ST).
The other morphology of droplet impact was the recession, par-
tial rebound, and complete rebound. The effect of various droplet
parameters on the droplet state on the horizontal test surface is given
in Table II.
Bouncing off two objects (one droplet and the other the test
surface) with each other is known as rebounding. There is a change
in the direction before and after the impact of a drop on the test
surface. Generally, the rebounding is classified as complete and par-
tial rebounding. In complete rebounding, the entire drop rebounds
on the test surface, whereas, in partial rebounding, part of the drop
sion of the fluid, shape, and temperature of the surface. After the
recession, rebounding takes place due to the high contact angle and
kinetic energy. The rebounding depends upon the surface. There-
fore, no rebounding occurs as the drop impacts on a super-cooled
superhydrophobic surface because the droplet freezes and adheres
to the test surface.
Indeed, in the applications such as spray/jet impingement cool-
ing, nanofluids have gained promising potential because of its ability
to remove high heat fluxes, and research trends to explore the under-
lying cooling phenomena with emphasis on this fluid are continuing
(Bansal and Pyrtle, 2007; Bellerova et al., 2010; Mitra et al., 2012;
Naphon and Nakharintr, 2012; Tseng et al., 2014; and Barewar et al.,
2019). Efforts have been directed toward the experimental observa-
tions of the head-on-collision of two TiO2 –water nanofluid drops
and investigations into the effect of impact velocity, droplet size, and

TABLE II. Effect of various droplet parameters on the droplet state on the dry horizontal surface (up and down arrows indicate the increase and decrease in droplet states with an
increase in various parameters). “Reproduced with permission from Rioboo et al., “Outcomes from a drop impact on the solid surface,” Atomization Sprays 11, 155–165 (2001).
Copyright 2001 Begell House.”

As an increase of Deposition Prompt splash Corona splash Recession Partial rebound Complete rebound

Drop diameter ↓ ↑
Impact velocity ↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
Surface tension ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
Viscosity ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓
Roughness amplitude ↓ ↑ ↓
Roughness wavelength ↓
Wettability characteristics ↑ ↑ ↑

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503 32, 121301-3

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 Physics of Fluids
concentration on the droplet spreading, recoiling, and rebounding
(Zhou et al., 2018; Avramenko et al., 2017). The desired objectives
were to understand the effect of nanofluids (e.g., concentration and
volume fraction) on the enhancement in the underlying heat transfer
performance.
The physics of droplet impingement depends upon the fluid
dynamics and interfacial properties of the solid test surface and cool-
ing fluid. However, droplets impinge on the test surface in the form
of smaller droplets through the nozzle, which breakdowns the cool-
ing fluid into many droplets. The droplet impingement concept is
important for spray/jet impingement cooling techniques because
impinged droplets on the test surface increase the HT by aug-
menting the surface area and decrease the need for cooling fluid
requirement.
The drop formation occurs by atomization and it is the pro-
cess of breaking up bulk liquids into smaller droplets. The atom-
ization occurs through the spray nozzles. As earlier discussed, gen-
erally, pressure atomized and air-atomized classes of spray noz-
zles are used as per the requirement of industrial applications. In
a pressure atomized nozzle, the high-pressure forces the fluid into
a small orifice and the fluid appears as a solid stream or sheet at
a very high speed. Following this phenomenon, the solid stream
is disrupted by the friction between the fluid and air, leading to
the breaking of it into fragments and finally into smaller droplets.
Therefore, the main source of energy in a pressure atomized noz-
zle is the fluid pressure and it changes into momentum as the fluid
leaves the orifice of the nozzle. The orifice diameter, environmen-
tal effect, and relative motion between the fluid and air are the most
concerning factors affecting the spray. The droplet size is directly
proportional to the orifice diameter, while the environmental atmo-
sphere provides the resistance to the breakup of the fluid stream.
The droplet size is also affected by the relative motion between
the fluid and air. The fluid velocity is related to the nozzle pres-
sure. When the pressure of the nozzle increases, the fluid velocity
increases and the average drop size diminishes. In the air-atomized
nozzle, the fluid emerges from the nozzle at a low speed through a
Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503
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REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf
FIG. 1. Droplet impact regimes on a dry test surface. Repro-
duced with permission from Rioboo et al., “Outcomes from
a drop impact on the solid surface,” Atomization Sprays 11,
155–165 (2001). Copyright 2001 Begell House.
high-speed stream of air under which friction occurs between the
fluid and air that accelerate and interrupt the fluid stream, and drop
formation occurs. Chandrasekhar (1961) observed mathematically
the effect of fluid viscosity and density on the breakup of droplets.
The study concluded that breakup rates of the droplet decrease and
05 August 2023 12:20:12
the droplet size increases with an enhancement in the viscosity.
The study also observed that the capillary pinching is the physi-
cal mechanism of the breakup of the viscous fluid jet in a vacuum.
Villermaux (2007) showed that drop formation in liquid jets results
from the breakup of ligaments. Therefore, the mechanism of the
breakup of droplets in a liquid jet is due to waves on the sheet pro-
duced by the resistance between the fluid and nearby air. After that,
these waves grow in amplitudes, which means that there is thickness
modulation of the sheet by which the sheet becomes thin until rup-
ture and generates the sheet fragments of precise size. Now, these
fragments contract to form the ligaments, which finally breakup
into droplets.
We subdivide the present review as follows: The parame-
ters affecting the spray and jet impingement cooling are discussed
in Sec. II. The review that we discuss in Sec. III compares the
jet impingement and spray cooling techniques alongside their HT
mechanisms. We outline the introduction of nanofluids in Sec. IV.
Section V reviews the HT enhancement in spray cooling using sur-
factants and nanofluids. We focus on the topic of the HT enhance-
ment in jet impingement cooling using nanofluids in Sec. VI. Finally,
in Sec. VII, we present the concluding remarks and future directions
of this review paper.
II. PARAMETERS AFFECTING SPRAY COOLING
AND JET IMPINGEMENT COOLING
Many essential parameters affect the spray cooling heat trans-
fer (HT). Cheng et al. (2016) suggested that there is a superposition
of several heat transfer mechanisms in spray cooling, and collec-
tively, spray parameters affect each HT mechanism. Therefore, one
of the most significant objections in the study of spray cooling is
32, 121301-4
 Physics of Fluids
the incompetence to independently and precisely control each
parameter. For example, the spray flow rate can be increased by
increasing the pressure difference in pressure atomizing nozzles, and
at the same time, the increase in pressure also affects the droplet size
and droplet velocity. The spray parameters are divided into four dif-
ferent categories: spray characteristics, cooling fluid characteristics,
surface characteristics, and the external environment characteris-
tics (Cheng et al., 2016). These parameters are given in Table III.
Out of these parameters, spray characteristics give more attention
toward changing the HT. The spray characteristics are mostly deter-
mined by the spray nozzle performance, and these properties are also
influenced by fluid properties (thermal conductivity, viscosity, heat
capacity, ST, vapor pressure, density, specific gravity, and specific
volume), ambient temperature, and nozzle inlet pressure. Hence, all
the parameters should be considered when designing a spray cooling
system to achieve optimal performance.
Karwa et al. (2007) observed that there is a reduction in droplet
size and improvement in droplet velocity and droplet density with
an increase in the spray flow rate. When the spray is inclined rel-
ative to the heated target surface, the impact area is an ellipse.
Estes and Mudawar (1995a) suggested that experimental analysis
with different nozzle orientation angles must be performed such
that the major axis of the elliptical impact area inscribed the tar-
get surface, so to attain this condition, there is a need to decrease
the standoff distance. Therefore, there is a reduction in the minor
axis length and impact area on augmentation in the nozzle ori-
entation angle. The droplets atomized using the nozzle are uni-
formly distributed in the normal sprays, while in the inclined sprays,
there is significantly lateral fluid flow along the target surface in
the direction of the downstream region. The lowest volumetric flux
is encountered in the endpoints of the minor axis of the elliptical
impact area because these are the farthest points from the orifice of
the nozzle.
Sun et al. (2017) showed that HT characteristics of the nozzle
in the spray cooling system of the natural draft dry cooling tower
depend upon the nozzle geometry, array of nozzles, standoff distance
(H z ) between the nozzle and test surface, and the number of nozzles.
Cheng et al. (2011) performed the experiments to examine the effect
TABLE III. Important parameters that affect the spray cooling.
Droplet velocity
Droplet Sauter mean diameter
Spray characteristics Droplet flux
Spray flow rate
Spray inclination angle
Fluid properties
Cooling fluid characteristics Additives
Nanofluids
Surface roughness
Surface characteristics
Surface coating
(target surface)
Surface geometry
External environment Gravity
characteristics Non-condensable gases
Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503
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of various parameters on the HT characteristics in the non-boiling
spray cooling system. Their study suggested that flowing fluid ther-
mophysical properties and spray characteristics mostly affect the HT
in the non-boiling spray cooling and found that with an increase in
the flow rate of spray, there is an increase in droplet velocity and
droplet number density, whereas the Sauter mean droplet diameter
(d32 ) decreases.
The parameters strongly affecting the HTR of jet impingement
cooling are the Reynolds number (Re), jet to test surface distance,
Prandtl number (Pr), confinement of the jets, test plate inclination,
roughness of the test plate, and turbulence intensity at the jet exit.
Lee et al. (2004) investigated the effect of the nozzle diameter (d)
on the HTR using the circular jet impingement on the flat surface
at Re = 23 000. The study suggested that HTC increases with an
increase in the d in the stagnation region. On the contrary, there
is an insignificant effect in the wall jet region.
Attalla et al. (2017) experimentally reported the effect of the
nozzle shape (circular nozzle and square nozzle) on the HTR and
HT uniformity for an in-line array of the impinging air jet. The
study claimed that the square nozzle had a lower HTR and higher
HT uniformity compared to the square nozzle. Wae-hayee et al.
(2013) reported the effect of HT characteristics on the array of
the impinging jet and concluded that the Nusselt number (Nu)
for the in-line arrangement was higher compared to the staggered
arrangement.
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III. COMPARISION OF JET IMPINGEMENT
AND SPRAY COOLING
When the spray is initiated, a thin liquid film is formed on the
heated test surface having a very thin thickness of 300 μm–500 μm.
The temperature nearest to the wall is approximately the surface
temperature, while it changes to free stream value away to the sur-
face (normal direction) in the liquid film. This film is formed due to
internal frictional forces between various layers of fluids as they have
relative motion concerning each other. Therefore, this thin liquid
film is called the boundary layer because it is formed on the bound-
ary of the surface. When nanodroplets strike the boundary layer,
the momentum of incoming droplets produces enrichment in force
convection in the boundary layer. Also, the study observed that con-
tinuous striking by the droplets augments the mixing and creates
turbulence, which removes the heat at a faster rate and lowers the
surface temperature.
As the nozzle orifice size is very small, the use of nanofluid in
spray/jet impingement cooling may enhance the chances of orifice
clogging, attributed mainly to the tendency of the nanofluid toward
the aggregation and to form the clusters of nanoparticles (NPs). Due
to this, dryout occurs on the heated test surface. Another disadvan-
tage of the nanofluid spray/jet cooling systems is the requirement of
high pumping power. A high pumping power is required to increase
the pressure drop through the nozzle to produce the desired droplet
size and distribution on the test surface for enhancement in the heat
transfer rate. The design and fabrication of the spray nozzle used in
spray cooling technology do not have an identical industry standard.
Because of this reason, it is difficult to get a universal correction of
spray characteristics for cooling performance, which limits the use of
this technology. The other disadvantage in the spray cooling system
32, 121301-5
 Physics of Fluids
FIG. 2. The plot between ratios of the outgoing Sauter mean diameter to the
incoming Sauter mean diameter and mass flux. Reproduced with permission from
Labergue et al., “Comparative study of the cooling of a hot temperature surface
using sprays and liquid jets,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 81, 889–900 (2015).
Copyright 2014 Elsevier.
is the wear of the nozzle. It is undesirable from an operational point
of view because a small amount of nozzle wear results in an adverse
nozzle capacity that increases the need for cooling fluid requirement.
As the jet impingement cooling depends mostly on the high-velocity
jet to remove the heat from the surface, there is a need for multiple
jet systems as compared to a single jet system for uniform cooling
from the surface, but in a multiple jet system, the concern is about
the design of the outlet port. It is also difficult in a nanofluid jet
impingement cooling system to optimize the jet geometry, config-
uration, swirl pattern, and jet velocity for enhancement in HT from
a surface.
Estes and Mudawar (1995b) compared experimentally the per-
formance of spray and free surface jet using the dielectric fluids
(FC-72 or FC-87) on a square test surface area (AT ). The study
claimed that the spray has the advantages on the jet due to surface
Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503
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temperature uniformity. It happened because of the focused cooling
of the jet in the impingement zone, under which jets are gener-
ating a large temperature gradient in the radial direction. On the
other hand, the liquid impinged droplets in the spray cooling dis-
persed on the entire heated test surface area. Resulting from this,
there is much more temperature uniformity on the spray impinged
surface as compared to the jet. The study also suggested that there
is a weak attachment of the liquid film with the chip surface in jets,
under which there is the establishment of premature critical heat flux
(CHF) at a substantial increment of the chip power.
Oliphant et al. (1998) compared jet impingement and spray
cooling systems and claimed that spray cooling is better because
it provides the same HTR at a lower mass flow rate (M) and
temperature uniformity at the heated surface.
Labergue et al. (2015) investigated the comparative study of
spray and water jets on a heated surface with the phase Doppler
analyzer (PDA) to study the velocity and droplet size of outgoing
droplets in the vicinity of the test surface. The study considered three
sprays with spray cone angles (α) of 45○ , 45○ , and 60○ , respectively.
Due to the lower Weber number (We) for spray 3, the study repre-
sents a lower reduction of the diameter compared to other sprays,
as shown in Fig. 2. The best performance in these experiments is
achieved by spray at the highest mass flux (G).
The literature revealed that the HT mechanism of jet impinge-
ment and spray cooling is somewhat complicated due to the exis-
tence of a number of simultaneous HT mechanisms and interacts
with each other. Rini (2000) found that there is a combination of
05 August 2023 12:20:12
many HT mechanisms in the spray cooling that govern the high
rate of cooling from the heated target surface. This made spray cool-
ing a better cooling method compared to other traditional cooling
methods.
Liu et al. (1991) and Xu and Gadala (2006) suggested that there
are four HT mechanisms in liquid jet impingement cooling such as
film boiling, nucleate boiling, transition boiling, and forced convec-
tion. Similarly, Mesler and Mailen (1977), Pais et al. (1992), Yang
et al. (1996), Rini et al. (2002), and Yan et al. (2011) proposed that
there are four basic mechanisms of HT in spray cooling and these are
as follows: (i) evaporation of liquid molecules from the liquid film,
(ii) forced convection due to droplets impingement, (iii) fixed nucle-
ation sites on the heated surface, and (iv) secondary nucleation sites
entrained by spray droplets. The different HT mechanism of spray
cooling is given in Fig. 3.
FIG. 3. Schematic of spray cooling HT
mechanisms. From Yan et al., “Spray
cooling,” in Two Phase Flow, Phase
Change and Numerical Modeling, edited
by Ahsan, A. (InTech, 2011). Copyright
2011 Reproduced with permission from
Author(s), licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
32, 121301-6
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FIG. 4. Schematic of the reduction

in thermal resistance due to droplet
impingement. From Yan et al., “Spray
cooling,” in Two Phase Flow, Phase
Change and Numerical Modeling, edited
by Ahsan, A. (InTech, 2011). Copyright
2011 Reproduced with permission from
Author(s), licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

A. Evaporation of liquid molecules
A thin liquid film of 300 μm–500 μm is formed on the heated TS
whenever the spray is initiated. When the droplets impinged on the
test surface, the thermal resistance was reduced, as shown in Fig. 4,
due to additional mixing provided by impinged droplets; therefore,
there is an improvement of the HTR. Pais et al. (1992) observed that
the evaporation of liquid molecules from the surface of the liquid
film dominates the HT mechanism.
B. Forced convection due to droplets impingement
The momentum of incoming droplets results in the enhance-
ment of forced convection, which enhances the HTR. Figure 5
shows the mechanism of forced convection due to droplets
impingement.
nuclease site reached a saturation temperature, under which it takes
the heat from the test surface, and thereby, the T s drops. The growth
of bubbles from the nucleation sites is shown in Fig. 6.
D. Secondary nucleation sites
A large number of secondary nucleation sites entrained by
spray droplets are the major cause of the high HTR of spray cool-
ing (Rini et al., 2002). When the droplet strikes the liquid film, the
entrapped vapor bubbles act as secondary nuclei sites for growing
the new bubbles.
IV. NANOFLUIDS
A nanofluid is a fluid produced by the dispersion of NP having a
typical size less than 100 nm in the conventional fluids known as base

05 August 2023 12:20:12

C. Fixed nucleation sites on the heated surface
The bubbles appeared to be growing from the nucleation sites
from the cavitations on the heated target surface. The effect is due to
the phase change in liquid that occurs whenever there is an absorp-
tion of HF on the test surface. Thereby, the temperature of the local
fluid (BF) such as water, ethylene glycol, and oil, as shown in Fig. 7.
These conventional fluids have poor HT characteristics due to which
the need for nanofluids has emerged (Kumar et al., 2020). The term
nanofluid was first coined by Choi and Eastman (1995). The most
noteworthy property of the nanofluid is thermal conductivity (k) to
enhance the HTR (Sridhara et al., 2009; Godson et al., 2010).

FIG. 5. Schematic of force convection by

droplet impingement. From Yan et al.,
“Spray cooling,” in Two Phase Flow,
Phase Change and Numerical Model-
ing, edited by Ahsan, A. (InTech, 2011).
Copyright 2011 Reproduced with per-
mission from Author(s), licensed under
a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
License.

FIG. 6. Schematic of fixed nucleation

sites on the heated surface. From
Yan et al., “Spray cooling,” in Two
Phase Flow, Phase Change and Numer-
ical Modeling, edited by Ahsan, A.
(InTech, 2011). Copyright 2011 Repro-
duced with permission from Author(s),
licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 License.

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503 32, 121301-7

Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Physics of Fluids REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf

layering at the fluid–particle interface (Sarma et al., 2020). The ther-

FIG. 7. Commonly used conventional fluids.
Generally, the k of the solids is higher than that of the liq-
uids. The nanofluids stand for enhanced stability compared with
usual fluids added with micrometer or millimeter-sized solid parti-
cles because of size consequence and Brownian action of the NPs
in BF (Kumar et al., 2020). Many factors are responsible for the
alteration in the thermophysical properties of nanofluids, for exam-
ple, particle clustering, Brownian motion of particles, and molecular
mophysical properties of some of the NPs, BF, and nanofluids are
shown in Table IV, which are used by researchers in their studies.
The heat flow in a thermal system is calculated by the following
equation (Balmer, 2011):
QH = hAΔT, (1)
where QH , h, A, and ∆T represent the heat flow, heat transfer
coefficient, surface area, and temperature difference, respectively.
There is an enhancement in HTR on increasing h, A, and ∆T.
However, there is a restriction on A since on increasing the surface
area, there is an increase in weight and size of the thermal system.
While on ∆T, there is restriction due to constraints on the material
and process. Therefore, HT can be improved by increasing the h of
the working fluid (WF). Hence, there is a need to improve the ther-
mal properties of the working fluid. Hence, the best way to improve
the thermal properties of the fluid is by the addition of nanopar-
ticles in the BF. The nanofluids have enhanced thermal properties
and improved HT characteristics as compared to conventional flu-
ids because of the small solid NPs acting as liquid molecules due to
their very small sizes and surface effect. On increasing the nanopar-
ticle concentration, there is an enhancement in thermal conductiv-
ity, but there is a need to limit the concentration for maintaining

TABLE IV. Thermophysical properties of NPs, BF, and nanofluids.

05 August 2023 12:20:12

Reference Density Specific Viscosity Thermal
temperature ρ heat Cp μ conductivity k
S. no. NP/BF/nanofluid (K) (kg/m3 ) (J/kg K) (N s/m2 ) (W/m K) References

Nanoparticles

1 Al2 O3 293 3 380 755 33 Munro (1997)

2 Ag 298 10 500 235 429 Ahmed et al. (2018)
3 MWCNT 298 2 600 450 200 0 Hsieh et al. (2015)
4 Diamond 293 3 510 497.26 100 0 Mohammed et al. (2011)
5 CuO 300 8 933 385 401 Roy (2018)
6 TiO2 298 4 250 686.2 8.95 Ma and Yang (2020)
7 SiO2 298 2 200 765 1.4 Jumpholkul et al. (2017)
8 Al 301 230 890 204 Hsieh et al. (2016)
9 Cu 300 8 933 385 400 Oztop and Abu-Nada (2008)

Base fluids

1 Water 300 997.1 4179 0.000 85 0.613 Mohebbi et al. (2017)

2 Ethylene glycol 293 1 117.48 2382.1 0.022 0.249 2 Mohammed et al. (2011)
3 Ester 298 1 150 3238.26 0.001 4 0.31 Mahajan and Sharma (2017)

Nanofluids

1 Al2 O3 –water (ϕv = 0.1) 301 996.11 4219.63 0.000 84 0.616 173 Hsieh et al. (2016)
2 SiO2 –water (ϕv = 0.1) 301 996.11 4219.67 0.000 84 0.616 178 Hsieh et al. (2016)
3 TiO2 –water (ϕv = 0.1) 301 996.11 4219.65 0.000 84 0.616 152 Hsieh et al. (2016)
4 Fe3 O4 –water (ϕv = 0.1) 301 996.11 4219.96 0.000 84 0.616 181 Hsieh et al. (2016)
5 Diamond–ethylene glycol (ϕv = 002) 293 1 165.33 2268.56 0.023 1 0.264 45 Mohammed et al. (2011)
6 Ag–water (ϕv = 0.0025) 298 997.24 4199.9 0.000 89 0.606 0 Hsieh et al. (2015)
7 MWCNT–water (ϕv = 0.0025) 298 997.04 4199.91 0.000 89 0.607 8 Hsieh et al. (2015)

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503 32, 121301-8

Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Physics of Fluids
the long-term stability that reduces due to undesirable enhancement
in viscosity and density. Therefore, maintaining long-term stability
is the most important technical challenge for the use of nanoflu-
ids in various cooling applications. A thin liquid film is formed on
the heated surface as the spray is initiated in nanofluid spray/jet
impingement cooling and the liquid film becomes thinner as more
droplets impinge on the liquid film. It is the factor due to which there
is an enhancement in the turbulence intensity of the phase interface.
The bubbles appeared to be growing from the nucleation sites from
the cavitation on the heated surface. Thereby, the temperature of the
local nucleus site reaches a saturation temperature, under which it
takes the heat from the test surface, and thereby, the surface tem-
perature drops. When the more droplets strike the liquid film, the
entrapped vapor bubbles act as secondary nuclei sites for growing
the new bubble. These additional nuclei sites are very significant in
the HT mechanism of spray/jet impingement cooling as it provides
a lot of nucleation sites for bubbles to grow and to absorb the heat
from the heated surface.
Combining the nanofluid and jet/spray is considered to be an
effective method to augment the HT by taking the benefits of both.
Therefore, first, the reasons for augmentation in HT by using
the nanofluids are attributed to the improvement in the thermal con-
ductivity of working fluid as compared to the conventional fluid.
Second, the acceleration of the energy transport process is due
to suspended nanoparticles between the fluid and heated surface.
The third one is due to the reinforcement of turbulence intensity
of the working fluid near the surface by frequent and penetrating
FIG. 8. Classification of nanofluids based on the type of dispersed nanoparticles.
Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503
Published under license by AIP Publishing
REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf
droplet impingement on the test surface, and hence, there is an
improvement in HT.
A. Types of nanofluids
The nanofluids with various types of NPs including metals (Cu,
Fe, Ag, Al, and Au), metal oxides (Al2 O3 , TiO2 , Fe3 O4 , CuO, and
ZnO), and carbon nanomaterials [SWCNT and multiwall carbon
nanotubes (MWCNT)] have been studied. There is a new class of
nanofluids dispersed with nanodroplets known as nanoemulsion,
which has also been reported. These types of nanoemulsion fluids
possess long term stability, while whether they possess higher k is
doubtful. The magnetic NPs (CoFe2 O4 , MnZnFe2 O4 , Fe2 O3 , Fe3 O4 ,
Fe, and Co) have attracted special attention due to their extraor-
dinary features of having fluidic and magnetic properties together.
Out of these, Fe and Co are known as ferromagnetic materials, while
the rest are known as ferrimagnetic materials (Philip et al., 2007).
Hybrid nanofluids show the association of chemical and physical
properties of different constitutes. For preparing a superior HT
hybrid nanofluid, one constituent may have good thermal proper-
ties, while the other can have good rheological properties (Sarkar
et al., 2015). However, the preparation of a hybrid nanofluid is more
complex and costly, which makes it lesser used in industrial applica-
tions (Sarbolookzadeh et al., 2016). The k of the hybrid nanofluids
significantly improve as compared to conventional nanofluids, and
the most important factor for preparing the hybrid nanofluid is its
stability and it is improved by ultrasonication, magnetic stirring,
05 August 2023 12:20:12
32, 121301-9
 Physics of Fluids
surfactant addition, and controlling the pH value (Eshgarf et al.,
2020). Due to unique electrical, optical, and photothermal proper-
ties, metal-based nanofluids such as Ag and Au have importance in
physics, chemistry, and biology, but the high cost associated with Au
nanoparticles makes it the least used in the community of nanoflu-
ids (Chen and Wen, 2011), while alumina is the less cost-effective
and widely used material in the family of metal oxides (Suresh et al.,
2012) and SiO2 has good electrical insulation, abrasion resistance,
and high thermal stability (Haddad et al., 2014). Therefore, they pos-
sess no sedimentation in the long-term. Maleki et al. (2020) inves-
tigated the k of the ZnO-based nanofluid using approaches such
as artificial neural networks (ANN), multivariate adaptive regres-
sion spline (MARS), and group method of data handling (GMDH).
The study concluded that all the models can forecast the k of the
ZnO-based nanofluid accurately. Chen et al. (2008) suggested that
carbon nanotubes have unexpected essential electrical, mechanical,
and thermal properties, which make them wide applicable in differ-
ent fields. These have more conductivity than Cu and more strength
and stiffness than steel. Ghalandari et al. (2020) observed that CNTs
have very attractive features such as high aspect ratio and superior
mechanical, thermal, and optical properties, and its use with solar
systems improves the efficiency of the system. Amani et al. (2017)
investigated the modeling and optimization of k and viscosity of the
Zn-substituted cobalt ferrite (MnZnFe2 O4 ) nanofluid using ANN.
This method grabbed the attention of several researchers due to their
accurate prediction of k and viscosity of nanofluids as compared to
FIG. 9. Synthesis methods. (a) Single-step method. (b) Two-step method.
Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503
Published under license by AIP Publishing
REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf
classical methods. Apart from that, it has a high processing speed
and ease of use. The classification of nanofluids based on the type of
dispersed nanoparticles is given in Fig. 8.
B. Synthesis of nanofluids
The preparation of NP in the form of nanofluid is the first key
step to the use of NPs in the HT applications. The nanofluid prepa-
ration is challenging due to the requirement of high stability, no
chemical change, and low adhesion of particles. Saidur et al. (2011)
suggested that the nanofluids are beneficial to the cooling industry
only when these are produced to be stable at a large scale and low
cost. Figure 9 depicts the synthesis methods for the nanofluids.
Two methods are used to synthesize nanofluids: the single-
step method and the two-step method. In the single-step method,
the synthesis of nanofluids in one step only means the manufac-
turing of NPs and the preparation of nanofluids are carried out
simultaneously, while in the two-step method, synthesis of nanoflu-
ids is carried out in two steps, which means that manufacturing of
NPs and preparation of nanofluids are separated from each other
(Eastman et al., 2001). Out of these two methods, the two-step
methods are useful for large scale production. Table V represents
the comparison of a single step and two-step methods for the
preparation of nanofluids.
Tharayil et al. (2018) investigated the combined effect of NP
coating and graphene-based nanofluid on thermal management of
05 August 2023 12:20:12
32, 121301-10
 Physics of Fluids REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf

TABLE V. Comparison of single-step and two-step methods for synthesis of nanofluids.

S. no. Particular Single-step method Two-step method References

1 Steps of synthesis Synthesis of nanofluids in Synthesis of nanofluids in Eastman et al. (2001)

one step only means that
manufacturing of NPs and
preparation of nanofluids
were carried out simultane-
ously
two steps means that manu-
facturing of NPs and prepa-
ration of nanofluids were
separated from each other

2 Large or small scale production Useful for small scale pro- Useful for large scale pro- Li et al. (2009)
duction means not fruitful duction means fruitful for
for industrial purpose industrial purpose

3 Applicability to the vapor pressure of BF Applicable only to the low No such limitation Wang and Mujumdar (2007)
vapor pressure of BF

4 Effect on oxidation of NPs Eliminates the stages of No such problem Keblinski et al. (2005)
drying, storage, and trans-
portation, which can cause
oxidation of NPs

5 Control on NPs size Works in batch mode so This method can control Sidik et al. (2014)
it had limited control over all important parameters
several important parame- including NP size
ters including NP size

05 August 2023 12:20:12

6 Cost High cost Low cost Keblinski et al. (2005)

electronic devices in a miniature loop heat pump. For the investi-
gation, the nanofluid is prepared using the two-step method. The
graphene nanosheets are mixed in water using an ultrasonic vibra-
tor having power and frequency of 400 W and 24 kHz, respectively,
with a sonication time of 30 min to form a stable mixture. The zeta
potential test is conducted to confirm the stability of the nanofluid
using the zeta potential analyzer that determined the zeta poten-
tial. It is an overall change that the particle acquires in a particular
medium. The study observed the zeta potential value of −45.7 mV
that is showing a high negative repelling potential. The zeta poten-
tial over 60 mV shows excellent stability, that above 30 mV is treated
as physically stable, and that below the 20 mV is considered to be
having limited stability, while that lower than 5 mV is an indication
of agglomeration (Ajitha et al., 2013).
Duangthongsuk and Wongwises (2017) prepared SiO2 -based
nanofluid by dispersing SiO2 in de-ionized (DI) water by a two-step
method at the volume concentration of 0.3, 0.6, and 0.8. The soni-
cation is provided for 2 h to eliminate the agglomeration of ultrafine
NPs by using a 500 W ultrasonic vibrator. Similarly, Jumpholkul
et al. (2020) prepared the nanofluid for the experimental analysis
by the dispersion of SiO2 NPs (Aerosil 380) having a mean diameter
of 7 nm into the water as base fluid, and the mixture is sonicated by
using an ultrasonic bath for the 2 h to break down the agglomera-
tion and properly achieve the proper dispersion. Giwa et al. (2020)
experimentally measured the viscosity and electrical conductivity
of the Al2 O3 /MWCNT based hybrid nanofluid with various parti-
cle mass ratios (90:10, 80:20, 60:40, 40:60, and 20:80). The two-step
method is used to form the hybrid nanofluid. The stability of the
nanofluid is preserved by using the UV–visible spectrophotome-
ter, viscosity, and visual inspection techniques. The higher growth
of electrical conductivity and viscosity is noticed to be 442.9% and
26.3%, respectively, concerning pure DI water at a particle mass ratio
of 90:10.
Sezer et al. (2019) found that many variables contribute to the
preparation of nanofluids such as BF type, NPs size, ultrasonication
period, pH of suspensions, and others, which are listed in Fig. 10.
Harishankar et al. (2018) correlated the wettability and contact
angle hysteresis on a solid–liquid interaction using the nanofluids.
The study found that the morphology of the NP plays a major role
in deciding the variations of dynamic contact angles.
C. Colloidal nanoparticles: Formation of electrical
double layer
We here make an effort to discuss the electrical properties of
nanofluids. Several studies reported in the literature have attempted
to discuss the mechanism of enhanced transport of nanoscale col-
loidal suspensions from the perspective of the continuum-based for-
mulation of thermo-physical properties of nanofluids (Wang et al.,
1999). To be precise, most of the studies have reported that the
factors such as particle clustering, Brownian motion of the parti-
cles, and molecular layering at the fluid–particle interface enhance
the transport accounting for an alteration of the effective thermo-
physical properties of the nanofluid (Mondal and Wongwises, 2020;

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503 32, 121301-11

Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Physics of Fluids
FIG. 10. Variables in the synthesis of nanofluids. Reproduced with permission from Sezer et al., “A comprehensive review on synthesis, stability, thermophysical properties,
and characterization of nanofluids,” Powder Technol. 344, 404–431 (2019). Copyright 2018 Elsevier.
Wang et al., 1999). In addition to these factors, there are sev-
eral other issues such as complex hydrodynamic interactions at a
small scale and the interparticle interactions that need to be put
in perspective for calculating the effective rheological behavior and
thermo-physical properties of nanofluids. These factors stimulate
the aggregation of nanoparticles suspended in the base fluid and
allow the cluster formation. The overall effect eventually alters the
dynamics of spray/jet impingement of nanofluids and affects the
heat transfer performance. It may be mentioned here that some
physicochemical features of the particulate system severely affect
the associated dynamics of nanoparticle agglomeration, following
the alteration in both the potentials, viz., the repulsive (Erepulsive )
and the van der Waals potential (Eattarctive ). For example, the pres-
ence of nanoparticles in a base fluid leads to the formation of an
electrical double layer (EDL) (Gorthi et al., 2020b; 2017; Gaikwad
et al., 2020; 2019b; 2019c; 2018; Abhimanyu et al., 2016; Kaushik
et al., 2017; 2019; Sarma et al., 2020; 2018; Mondal and Wongwises,
2020; 2017; Gaikwad and Mondal, 2017; Siva et al., 2020; Kunti
et al., 2018; and Goswami et al., 2016), which, in essence, alters
the interaction energy between the particles. Note that the inter-
action energy between the particles is obtained from the theory of
colloidal stability, which describes that the total interaction energy
is a function of the distance between two particles accounting for
the effects of repulsive potential owing to the presence of electric
charges in the EDL and the attractive potential due to van der Waals
forces. Therefore, the expressions for repulsive and attractive poten-
tials are required to obtain the effective radius of the nanoparticle
aggregates, which, in turn, will predict the effective volume fraction
of the nanoparticle cluster. This phenomenon is expected to alter
the fluidic functionalities at the small scale systems/devices (Mon-
dal et al., 2013; 2015a; 2015b; Gaikwad and Mondal, 2017; 2020;
Siva et al., 2020; Kunti et al., 2018; Gaikwad et al., 2018; 2019a;
2016; Goswami et al., 2016; Gorthi et al., 2020a; and Mondal et al.,
2014). It may be mentioned here that when the nanofluid strikes
the surface, the EDL phenomenon being developed will alter the
Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503
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nanoparticles dynamics and will have an influencive effect on the
underlying transport of heat from the surface. The continuing trend
of the application of the nanofluids in narrow fluidic systems/devices
alongside the ongoing rapid developments of microscale thermal
05 August 2023 12:20:12
management systems, leading to the possibilities of using a very
small volume of nanolfuid even in the form of drop for efficient as
well as augmented transport phenomena, has lead to a new paradigm
of nanofluid in several small scale applications as well (Shyam et al.,
2020a; 2020b; 2020c; and 2019).
D. Advantages and disadvantages of nanofluids
Nanofluids have some advantages that can be listed as fol-
lows:
● The nanofluids have adjustable properties (thermal conduc-
tivity and surface wettability) to suit the HT of various cool-
ing applications by varying the nanoparticle concentration.
● Compared to microfluidics, these have higher stability and
the ability to enhance heat conduction.
● The most noteworthy property of the nanofluid is ther-
mal conductivity to enhance the HTR. Therefore, the
rate of HT in thermal cooling systems is enhanced by
using the nanofluids, which improve the efficiency of these
systems.
● The dispersed nanoparticles increase the surface area of
nanofluids due to the very small particle size, which makes
them suitable for various applications (Roy et al., 2012).
Nanofluids have some disadvantages, which can be listed as
follows:
● The high production cost of the nanofluids is among the
reasons that obstruct the use of them in industrial cooling
applications (Mahian et al., 2019a). As discussed earlier, two
methods are used for the synthesis of nanofluids, that is,
32, 121301-12
 Physics of Fluids
single-step and two-step methods. In the two-step method,
first, nanoparticles are formed by using physical and chem-
ical methods and then mixed with BF. On the other hand,
the production and mixing of nanoparticles occurred simul-
taneously in the single-step method. Therefore, both meth-
ods required advanced and sophisticated effective types of
equipment, which results in high production costs.
● Most of the studies observed that the nanofluid has a low
value of specific heat as compared to BF, while for the ideal
coolant, there is a need for a high value of specific heat to
enhance the HT from the thermal systems. Specifically, there
is an axial rise in wall temperature due to degraded specific
heat.
● Another disadvantage of the nanofluid is their tendency
toward aggregation and sedimentation that happened due to
strong van der Waals force between particles that increased
the hydrodynamic diameter of particles, internal shear
stresses, and density of dispersed nanoparticles, under which
the homogeneous behavior of the nanofluid is disturbed.
Therefore, there is a need to maintain the long-term sta-
bility of the nanofluids; otherwise, HTR can be reduced in
the cooling applications by the use of a nanofluid. There
are some primary approaches (use of surfactant, control of
pH, and sonication) for increasing the long-term stability
of nanofluids and to restrict the formation of clusters of
nanoparticles.
● Long time use of the nanofluid may result in erosion and
corrosion of thermal system components.
● By using the nanofluid as a coolant, there is an augment in
pressure drop; therefore, a high pumping power (PPump ) is
required as compared to conventional fluid (Mahian et al.,
2019a).
V. HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT
IN SPRAY COOLING
Spray cooling is a complex phenomenon, and the understand-
ing of HT mechanisms that govern the heat removal process and
the parametric studies in spray cooling are quite limited due to
complicated random processes in spray and uncertainties in the
interactions of various parameters. The nanofluids have enhanced
thermal properties and improved HT characteristics as compared
to conventional fluids because the small solid NPs act as liquid
molecules due to their very small sizes and surface effect. Spray
cooling with nanofluids has great potential to enhance the HTR
because of their improved k from the base fluids. In this sec-
tion, the effect of surfactants and nanofluids on spray cooling HT
is studied.
A. Effect of surfactants
Liu et al. (2019b) investigated the effect of anionic, cationic,
and non-ionic surfactants, i.e., sodium alpha-olefin sulfonate (AOS),
cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB), and polyoxyethy-
lene sorbitan monolaurate (Tween-20) on the spray cooling. The
plot between HTC and surfactant concentration for three differ-
ent surfactants is shown in Fig. 11. It is observed that there is an
Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503
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REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf
FIG. 11. The plot between HTC and surfactant concentration. Reproduced with
permission from Liu et al., “Experimental investigation of comprehensive effects of
surfactant and inclined mode on spray cooling heat transfer,” Int. J. Therm. Sci.
136, 457–466 (2019b). Copyright 2019 Elsevier.
improvement in HTC with an increase in the concentration of the
05 August 2023 12:20:12
surfactant to an optimum limit after it diminishes. It happened
because, on the addition of surfactant concentration in the cooling
fluid, ST of the surfactant added solution decreases. Therefore, the
flowing fluid breaks up into smaller droplets to overcome their ST,
and the density of upcoming droplets increased. It is noted that there
is more disturbance on the liquid film, and due to that, there is rapid
discharge of the liquid film from the heated target surface, which
extracts extra heat from the surface; thereby, the HTC improves.
Beyond the optimum concentration, there is a reduction in HTC due
to bubble accumulation on the HT surface that happened because of
generation of rapid bubbles by the addition of a high concentration
surfactant in the coolant.
Figure 12 shows the plot between the surface temperature and
surfactant concentration. On increasing the surfactant concentra-
tion up to an optimum value, there is a decrease in surface temper-
ature. This effect is observed due to an increase in HTR below the
optimum value of concentration. There is an enhancement in spray
density as the surfactant concentration reached an optimum value
since there was an increase in bubbles carried away to the test sur-
face. These bubbles acted as vaporization cores and increased the
density of nucleation sites by which there was two-phase HT in the
liquid film at a low temperature. Besides the decrease in the ST on
increasing the surfactant concentration, there was an increase in the
wettability of the flowing fluid, under which spray easily spreads on
the heated test surface and extracts additional heat from the surface.
The diminishing trends persist beyond the optimum value of sur-
factant concentration due to the accumulation of bubbles on the
surface. Therefore, the upcoming droplets are unable to take the
additional heat from the heated surface directly. It is because of
this reason the mean surface temperature reduced on increasing the
surfactant concentration beyond the optimum value.
32, 121301-13
 Physics of Fluids
FIG. 12. The plot between the mean surface temperature and surfactant concen-
tration. Reproduced with permission from Liu et al., “Experimental investigation
of comprehensive effects of surfactant and inclined mode on spray cooling heat
transfer,” Int. J. Therm. Sci. 136, 457–466 (2019b). Copyright 2019 Elsevier.
Chakraborty et al. (2019a) experimentally analyzed the effect
of the surfactant and polymer-added solutions on the steel plate
using the full cone spray nozzle. To measure the surface tempera-
ture of the steel plate, three thermocouples of K-type were inserted
in a 3 mm diameter hole at a distance of 3 mm from the imping-
ing surface. A muffle furnace was used to heat the test surface at a
temperature of 1050 ○ C. The experiments were conducted using the
three types of surfactants: CTAB, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and
Tween-20, and polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP), i.e., water-soluble poly-
mer. Among all the surfactants, maximum enhancement in the HF
was achieved for the non-ionic surfactant (Tween-20) based flow-
ing solution, which was 19.9% higher than the HF achieved by water
spray.
The maximum surface cooling rate of 133.7 ○ C/s was achieved
at a mass flow rate (M) = 16 l/min (lpm) and H z = 6 cm for water
spray. While the maximum HTR was achieved at M = 16 lpm, at a
large value of surfactant concentration, there was a decrement in ST
under which the number of nucleation sites and the number of bub-
ble generation increased. Therefore, the main factor of enhancing
the HTR was ST.
Liu et al. (2019a) observed the effect of the fluorosurfactant
(FS-31) and mixed surfactants of CTAB-AOS, CTAB-FS-31, and
AOS-FS-31 on the HT enhancement of pulsed spray cooling using
water as the working fluid (WF). The pulsed spray cooling is a new
type of cooling method, and with the help of that, the HT effect
can be increased. There is a periodical injection of spray at a defi-
nite interval of time; consequently, the spray time depends upon the
amount of working fluid (WF) sprayed during the spray cycle and
injection frequency. There should be precise control of spray time,
injection frequency, and amount of cooling fluid injection. In this
technology of cooling at a small duty cycle, there was insufficient M,
and due to that, a thin liquid film cannot be formed over the target
Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503
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heated surface; therefore, bubbles cannot be generated. Therefore,
the HT was almost negligible due to boiling and secondary nucle-
ation. However, at a large duty time or at a large spray time, a liquid
film over the hot surface was formed by which the growth of bub-
bles then breakups, and finally, escape was possible. Therefore, the
HT takes place due to boiling and secondary nucleation. The study
claimed that the HT performance was greater at 60% duty cycle
compared to 50% duty cycle and for mixed surfactants, and the HT
performance for CTAB-FS-31and AOS-FS-31 was much more than
the CTAB–AOS due to the synergistic effect of the non-ionic sur-
factant with the cationic or anionic surfactant. Figure 13 shows the
plot between HTC and proportion (%) for three mixed surfactants.
The HTC achieved a maximum for a mixture of AOS-FS-31 surfac-
tant based WF at the proportion of AOS (25%) and FS-31(75%). The
HTC was 1.75 W/cm2 K, which was 62% more than the single AOS
and 13% more than the single FS-31. The addition of a non-ionic
surfactant shields the electrostatic interaction between the ion head
groups and formed a more compact monolayer on the gas–liquid
surface. Therefore, there was the formation of micelle in the solution
of mixed surfactants of AOS and FS-31 that weaken the repulsion
between the ion’s head groups due to the synergistic effect. There-
fore, the ST of the WF decreased, which makes the droplet’s size
coming out the spray nozzle finer.
Figure 14 shows the plot between the contact angle and propor-
tion (%) for the three mixed surfactants. The contact angle decreases
with a decrease in ST. Therefore, AT of impinging droplets increases,
by which the finer droplets can quickly be evaporated from the
05 August 2023 12:20:12
heated test surface. The minimum contact angle of 47.3○ for a mix-
ture of AOS-FS-31 surfactants based working fluid at the proportion
of AOS (25%) and FS-31 (75%) was achieved.
Zhang et al. (2018) observed experimentally the effect of four
high alcohol surfactants (HAS), isooctanol, 1-octanol, 1-heptanol,
FIG. 13. The plot between HTC and the proportion of mixed surfactants. Repro-
duced with permission from Liu et al., “Effects of mixed surfactants on heat transfer
performance of pulsed spray cooling,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 144, 118593
(2019a). Copyright 2019 Elsevier.
32, 121301-14
 Physics of Fluids REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf

FIG. 14. The plot between the contact angle and the proportion of mixed surfac-
tants. Reproduced with permission from Liu et al., “Effects of mixed surfactants
on heat transfer performance of pulsed spray cooling,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
144, 118593 (2019a). Copyright 2019 Elsevier.
FIG. 15. The plot between ST and the additive concentration of HAS. Reproduced
with permission from Cheng et al., “An experimental investigation of heat transfer
enhancement by addition of high-alcohol surfactant (HAS) and dissolving salt addi-
tive (DSA) in spray cooling,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 45, 198–202 (2013). Copyright
2012 Elsevier.

and n-decanol, on HT enhancement of spray cooling using water as contact angle tester is used to measure the ST of DSA based WF.

05 August 2023 12:20:12

a WF. The T s is measured by three T-type thermocouples that were The ST may be increased due to the mutual and quick attraction
drilled in small holes to a distance of 5 mm, 10 mm, and 15 mm of cations and anions of electrolyte on the test surface. The best con-
from the heated test surface. The study claimed that the best HT centration of 1-octanol, 2-ethyl hexanol, Na2 SO4 , and NaCl obtained
enhancement was achieved at an optimal concentration of each sur- was 200 ppm, 150 ppm, 2.76%, and 1.72%, respectively.
factant. Maximum HF reached 200.8 W/cm2 for the 1-octanol based
WF at the optimal concentration of 0.3% and HT increases by 34.2%
as compared to the flowing water cooling fluid. The Phase Doppler
Anemometry (PDA) and particle image velocimetry (PIV) systems
are used to measure the spray characteristics such as d32 and droplets
mean velocity.
Cheng et al. (2013) did experimental research on the HT
enhancement by the mixing of HAS (1-octanol or 2-ethyl hexanol)
and dissolving a salt additive (DSA, i.e., NaCl or Na2 SO4 ) in water.
The WF was circulated with the help of a microcirculating pump;
after that, through the buffer and filter and then with the help of a
nozzle. The study used the pressure atomized nozzle. It atomized the
WF into smaller droplets that were impinged on the heated test sur-
face made of copper. Some of the droplets rebounded away, while
others formed a thin film on the hot test surface. Figure 15 shows
the plot between ST and additive concentration of HAS for the 1-
octanol or 2-ethyl hexanol. The ST decreased with an increase in
the surfactant concentration, and after that, it approaches a certain
steady value. The reason for the ST reduction is the increase in the
additive concentration due to the volatilization of the additive to the
vapor form in the vicinity of the interface. Therefore, the ST of HAS
based WF becomes weakened.
Figure 16 shows the plot between ST and additive concentra- FIG. 16. The plot between ST and the additive concentration of DSA. Reproduced
tions of DSA. It is observed that there is an increase in the ST with with permission from Cheng et al., “An experimental investigation of heat transfer
an increase in the additive concentration then it approaches a steady enhancement by addition of high-alcohol surfactant (HAS) and dissolving salt addi-
value. The ST of Na2 SO4 based WF is slightly higher than the ST tive (DSA) in spray cooling,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 45, 198–202 (2013). Copyright
2012 Elsevier.
of NaCl based WF at the same concentration. The Digidrop DX

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503 32, 121301-15

Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Physics of Fluids REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf

Ravikumar et al. (2014) investigated the effect of mixed sur-
factants on HT enhancement of hot stainless steel plate using the
air-atomized nozzle (Model No. 170.801, manufactured by Lech-
ler, Inc., Germany). Three types of surfactants, i.e., cationic (cetri-
monium), anionic (SDS), and nonionic (Tween-20), are used to
measure the HT enhancement. The surface HF is estimated by
the INTEMP, i.e., a commercial inverse heat conduction (IHC)
software. Initially, the SS plate was heated at 900 ○ C in the muf-
fle furnace. The experiments are conducted at H z = 60 mm and
M = 0.0083 m3 /s. The solution of binary surfactants is formed by
mixing the CTAB, SDS, and Tween-20 in the proportion of 25%,
50%, and 75%, respectively. Therefore, the binary mixture solution
of CTAB–SDS, CTAB–Tween-20, and SDS–Tween-20 was formed.
In the experimental analysis, the ST, contact angle, and viscosity are
measured by using the tensiometer (Model No. K100, manufactured
by Kruss, Germany), gonimeter (Model No. 190-F2, manufactured
by Rame Hart Instrument, USA), and viscometer (Model No. DV2T,
Brookfield Viscometer, USA), respectively. The maximum achieved
CHF value is 3.98 MW/m2 for the SDS–Tween-20 binary solution
and an increase in HT enhancement was due to the synergic effect of
mixed surfactants.
Table VI summarizes the work of the various researchers on
spray cooling with surfactants, and Table VII presents the details of
different surfactants used by researchers in their study.
B. Effect of nanofluids
Tseng et al. (2014) performed the experiments on the stainless
steel plate using the TiO2 NPs to enhance the HT in spray cooling.
The recycled temperature of the nanofluid is estimated to be 50 ○ C
by using the thermocouple. Thus, it can be considered as a reference
temperature for the nanofluid to calculate the thermal fluid proper-
ties of the nanofluid, while the reference temperature for the NP is
considered to be 20 ○ C. The test surface was heated by an electrical

TABLE VI. Summary of the prior surfactant effect on spray cooling.

Surfactant Other Surface Surface

References used additives BF material size Observations

Liu et al. CTAB AOS Water Copper AT = 8.04 cm2 Maximum HTC of 2.6 W/cm2 K
(2019b) Tween-20 is achieved for
CTAB at a concentration

05 August 2023 12:20:12

of 200 ppm

Chakraborty et al. CTAB SDS PVP as a Water Stainless L×B×t Maximum HF of 2.65 MW/m2
(2019a) Tween-20 water-soluble steel = 100 × 100 × 6 mm3 is achieved for the
polymer Tween-20 based coolant
that was 19.9% higher
than water spray

Liu et al. FS-31 DI water Copper HTC is 1.75 W/cm2 K for

(2019a) CTAB–AOS AOS–FS-31 surfactants at
CTAB–FS-31 the proportion of 25%
AOS–FS-31 AOS and 75% FS-31, which
is 62% more than AOS
and 13% more than FS-31

Cheng et al. HAS DSA Water Copper 2-ethyl hexanol has the
(2013) (1-octanol/2- (NaCl or best HT enhancement
ethyl hexanol) Na2 SO4 )

Zhang et al. HAS Water Copper AT = 1.2 cm2 The maximum heat
(2018) (1-octanol/1- dissipation flux reached
heptanol/ to 200.8 W/cm2 for the
isooctanol/ 1-octanol at the optimal
n-decanol) concentration of 0.3%, so
HT enhanced by 34.2%

Ravikumar et al. CTAB–SDS Water Stainless L×B×t The maximum achieved

(2014) CTAB–Tween-20 steel = 100 × 100 × 6 mm3 CHF is 3.98 MW/m2 for
SDS–Tween-20 the SDS–Tween-20 binary
solution

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503 32, 121301-16

Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Physics of Fluids REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf

TABLE VII. Details of surfactants used by researchers.

S. no. Commercial name Chemical name Chemical formula Appearance Nature References

1 Cetyl trimethyl Hexadecyl trimethyl C19 H42 BrN White Cationic Zhang and Manglik
ammonium ammonium bromide powder (2003)
bromide (CTAB)
2 Sodium dodecyl Sodium lauryl C12 H25 NaSO4 White Anionic Wen and Wang
sulfate (SDS) sulfate powder (2002)
3 Tween-20 Polyoxyethylene C58 H114 O26 Yellowish Non-ionic Chakraborty et al.
sorbitan monolaurate liquid Non-ionic (2019a)
4 AOS Sodium alpha-olefin Cn H2n-1 SO3 Na Yellowish Anionic Liu et al. (2019b)
sulfonate (n = 14–16) liquid
5 1-octanol Octyl alcohol C8 H18 O Colorless liquid Non-ionic Zhang et al. (2018)
6 1-heptanol C7 H16 O Colorless liquid Non-ionic Zhang et al. (2018)
7 Isooctanol C8 H18 O Colorless liquid Non-ionic Zhang et al. (2018)
8 n-decanol C10 H22 O Colorless liquid Non-ionic Zhang et al. (2018)

furnace to 200 ○ C, and then, it was placed in the test section. The
full cone spray nozzle has the position in a vertically upward direc-
tion relative to the test surface to nullify the effect of gravity on the
spray pattern. It is noticed that HTC increases with an increase in
the volume flow rate of the nanofluid (Q); however, it decreases with
an increase in the concentration of the NPs. The decrease in HTC is
caused due to decreasing the impingement time of nanofluids on the
Therefore, HTR is highest for 0.1% followed by 0.07% and then
0.04% by volume concentration. The study noticed that the thermal
performance of NPs is mostly dependent on the concentration of
NPs, but this dependence is only valid until there is no sticking on
the test surface.
Ravikumar et al. (2015b) observed experimentally the effect
of metal Cu on the HT enhancement of the spray cooling using

05 August 2023 12:20:12

heated test surface.
Bellerová et al. (2012a) investigated theoretically and experi-
mentally the spray cooling HT using the Al2 O3 –water nanofluid by
the solid jet nozzle. The study suggested that the spray nozzle must
place below the heated test surface to eliminate the gravity effect on
the distribution of the spray pattern. The surface temperature (T s ) is
measured by a thermal probe embedded into the heated plate. The
measured T s were used as an input to calculate the HTC using the
inverse heat conduction (IHC) model. The IHC model consists of
two submodels. The first is used for the distribution of tempera-
ture in one-dimensional heat conduction problems, while the sec-
ond sub-model is used to compute the temperature distribution in
two-dimensional heat conduction problems. These two submodels
were formulated by finite difference formulation.
Hsieh et al. (2016) investigated experimentally the thermal per-
formance of spray cooling using seven different types of NPs such
as Ag, Al, Al2 O3 , Fe3 O4 , SiO2, TiO2, and multiwall carbon nan-
otubes (MWCNT) based WFs. The experimental setup consists of
two major assemblies that are heating assembly and cooling sys-
tem loop. The heater assembly is made up of a copper block and
heated by 15 cartridge heaters, each of 150 W, while the cooling sys-
tem loop consists of a water tank, reciprocating self-priming pump,
bypass valve, and a nozzle system to provide the spray. The T s
was measured with the help of three K-type thermocouples (80 μm
diameter) placed at the distances of 1 mm, 3 mm, and 5 mm from
the heated test surface. The study obtained the steady-state boil-
ing curves for nanofluids. These curves represent that on increasing
the concentration (ϕv = 0.04%–0.1%), there was an increase in the
slope of the profiles for each nanofluid. The change in the slope
of profiles is caused by the decrease in the degree of superheating,
and that was due to the effect of NPs on ST and viscosity of WFs.
water as the BF. The setup consists of a cooling fluid supply sys-
tem with the nozzle arrangement, an air loop to supply the pres-
surized air to the nozzle, and a cooling fluid delivery system to
recycled the WF. A two-dimension heat conduction equation is
used to find out the surface HT, and the solution procedure of
the two-dimension heat conduction equation was solved by using
the INTEMP software. The Cu NPs used in the study are pre-
pared by the mechanical milling process. For the preparation of
the nanofluid; the nanopowder of Cu was slowly dispersed in the
cooled water and constantly stirred for 30 min to form a homo-
geneous solution. After the stirring, the solution is taken for the
sonication of 2 h with a frequency of 50 Hz–60 Hz. The exper-
iments were done with or without the use of surfactants. The
use of surfactants in nanofluid increases the dispersive stability of
the NP. The different surfactants and polymers used in the study
are SDS (600 ppm), Tween-20 (56 ppm), CTAB (240 ppm), and
PVP (110 ppm).
Figure 17 shows the variation of T s and surface HF to the cool-
ing time in the stagnant zone. The study noticed that the HT in air-
atomized spray cooling occurred by the three mechanisms, which
are transition boiling regime, nucleate boiling regime, and single-
phase force convection sequentially, and these mechanisms occurred
between the temperature ranges of 925 ○ C < T < 360 ○ C, 360 ○ C < T
< 110 ○ C, and T < 110 ○ C, respectively. Whenever the cooling fluid
is just sprayed on the heated test surface through the spray noz-
zle, the T s decreases and the surface HF increases in the transition
boiling regime. The reason for this is due to the direct contact of a
liquid droplet on the heated test surface and the droplet takes the
heat energy from the surface and partially evaporates by leaving a
vapor bubble on the hot surface. After that, the vapor bubble floats
on the thin layer, which is formed on the solid–liquid interface due

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503 32, 121301-17

Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Physics of Fluids
FIG. 17. Variation of surface temperature and surface heat flux to the cool-
ing time at stagnant zone. Reproduced with permission from Ravikumar et
al., “Surfactant-based Cu–water nanofluid spray for heat transfer enhancement
of high-temperature steel surface,” J. Heat Transfer 137(5), 051504 (2015b).
Copyright 2015 ASME.
to vaporization. These partially evaporated droplets from the surface
are swept away by the air that was used for the atomization. Conse-
quently, there is an intermittent contact between the droplets and
the solid heated surface. Therefore, there is rapid nucleation of bub-
bles and the vapor layer will be unstable. Therefore, the HF reached
its maximum value of 2.74 MW/m2 known as the CHF point. After
this point, HT occurs due to the nucleate boiling regime. In this
regime, there is vigorous nucleation of bubbles occurring on the
hot test surface, which coalesces and grows in sizes resulting in the
formation of the liquid film. After that, the HT occurs due to single-
phase force convection because, at low T s , there is insufficient heat
energy on the surface whereby no bubble formation occurs on the
surface.
Figure 18 shows the plot between the surface HF and T s for dif-
ferent fluids with or without surfactants, NPs, and dispersing agents
(DA). The study suggested through the boiling curve that copper-
based nanofluid with or without the use of surfactant enhanced the
transition and nucleates boiling HTR compared to water. The rea-
son for this is the increase in k of the nanofluid due to the addition
of Cu NPs in water.
Ravikumar et al. (2015a) did experimentations on the stainless
steel (AISI-304) plate to enhance the HTC using the Al2 O3 –water
nanofluid with or without the use of DA. The nanofluids with the
use of DA showed a better HTR over the nanofluids without DA.
This is due to the decrease in the ST by the use of a surfactant,
which increased the surface wettability and density of bubble nuclei
on the heated test surface. It is heated initially to 900 ○ C by an electric
muffle furnace that was working on AC, three-phase mains sup-
ply with PID (proportional–integral–derivative) for homogeniza-
tion of temperature on the plate. The percentage enhancement in
the cooling rate of the Al2 O3 –water, Al2 O3 –water–SDS, and Al2 O3 –
water–Tween-20 nanofluids were 10.2%, 18.6%, and 32.3%, respec-
tively, as compared to water. This study noticed that a quick shift
Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503
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FIG. 18. The plot between surface heat flux and the surface temperature.
Reproduced with permission from Ravikumar et al., “Surfactant-based Cu–water
nanofluid spray for heat transfer enhancement of high-temperature steel surface,”
J. Heat Transfer 137(5), 051504 (2015b). Copyright 2015 ASME.
from transition boiling to nucleate boiling occurs with the use of
nanofluids.
05 August 2023 12:20:12
Bellerová et al. (2012b) analyzed experimentally and analyti-
cally the HT performance of the Al2 O3 –water nanofluid on a stain-
less steel (AISI-314) plate using the full cone spray nozzle having
d = 1.2 and α = 45○ . In the experimental analysis, the nozzle is
held vertically below the test plate to nullify the effect of gravity on
the disturbance of the spray pattern. The NP volume fraction (ϕv )
showed an adverse effect on the HT due to the decrease in the impact
duration time of NPs on the heated surface. The impact time of the
nanofluids included both impacts of solid NPs and BF on the solid
surface.
In the analytical analysis of impact duration time of nanoflu-
ids (∆t nf ), the impact duration time of fluid (∆t f ) is assumed to be
500 μs, and the impact duration time of NPs (∆t s ) is calculated by
Eq. (2) that is known as Hertz theory; then, the proportional mixing
principle is applied to calculate the impact duration time of nanoflu-
ids (∆t nf ) as given by Eq. (3). Therefore, it gives the relationship
between the impact duration time of the nanofluid, BF, and NP.
Hence, ∼20% decrease in HTC is seen on increasing the ϕv from 0
to 0.1645,
1 − νs2 1 − νt2
0.4
dn
Δts = 2.9 [ρ s ( + )] , (2)
Vi0.2 Es Et
where ρs = density of solid NPs, dn = diameter of solid NPs, and ν
and E represent the Poisson ratio and modulus of elasticity of the
solid NPs and test surface, respectively,
Δtnf Δts
= Φv + (1 − Φv ). (3)
Δtf Δtf
Hsieh et al. (2015) conducted experiments to test the spray
cooling characteristics of nanofluids of MWCNT and Ag NPs
32, 121301-18
 Physics of Fluids
using water de-ionized (DI) as a BF. The NPs are studied with
ϕv = 0.0025%–0.0075%. The reason behind the selection of
MWCNT and Ag NPs is due to their chemical stability and
easy dispersion in the BF. Figure 19 represents the comparison
of HTC of MWCNT and Ag-based nanofluid with DI water.
The T Sat represents the saturation temperature of fluid com-
ing out of the nozzle. The Ag-based nanofluid showed superior
HT compared to the MWCNT based nanofluid. On the con-
trary, k of MWCNT based nanofluids is higher than the Ag-based
nanofluids. This is due to the homogeneous dispersion of Ag-
based nanofluids compared to MWCNT based nanofluids without
agglomeration. The maximum CHF is found to be 274 W/cm2
and 249 W/cm2 for the Ag and MWCNT based nanofluids,
respectively.
Chakraborty et al. (2018) synthesized the Cu–Al layered dou-
ble hydroxide (LDH) nanofluid at different molar ratios of Cu and
Al by the co-precipitation method and used it like a WF to enhance
the HTR in spray cooling on the stainless steel plate. For making
the nanofluid, copper nitrate, aluminum nitrate, and sodium nitrate
in the molar ratio (2:1:2, 4:1:2, and 6:1:2) are mixed with water to
test the molar ratio effect on the k and stability of nanofluids, and
then, sodium hydroxide solution was added in the resultant solu-
tion to increase the pH to 10.7. The best molar ratio of Cu: Al = 4:1
is obtained, and then, experiments are conducted at the best molar
ratio to test out the effect of the variation of nanofluid concentration
(40 ppm–240 ppm). The maximum cooling rate of 168.6 ○ C/s at 160
ppm concentration is obtained, which is 26% more than the water
spray.
Chang et al. (2018) performed the experiments to test out the
effects of spray operating time on the HT performance and surface
hydrophilicity using the Al2 O3 –water nanofluid. The experiments
FIG. 19. HTC vs (T s − T sat ) for Ag, MWCNT-based nanofluids, and DI water at
constant G. Reproduced with permission from Hsieh et al., “Spray cooling char-
acteristics of nanofluids for electronic power devices,” Nanoscale Res. Lett. 10(1),
139–155 (2015). Copyright 2015 Author(s), licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 License.
Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503
Published under license by AIP Publishing
REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf
are carried out at three different concentrations (ϕv = 0, 0.001%,
and 0.05%) and at three spray operating times (10 h, 20 h, and
30 h). The study noticed that at ϕv = 0% of NPs, there is a negli-
gible effect of spray operating time on the HTC, while with increas-
ing the concentration at 0.01% and 0.05%, HTC decreases with the
increase in the spray operating time. However, there is no effect
of spray operating time on the surface hydrophilicity at ϕv = 0%,
while it increased with the increase in the spray operating time at
0.001% and 0.05%. Chang et al. (2012) conducted experiments to
investigate the HT characteristics on the heated copper test sur-
face polished with the roughness of 0.2 μm or 1.4 μm using the
Al2 O3 spray cooling system. The study has noticed that the ϕv =
0.001% yields the maximum HTC followed by 0.025%, 0%, and
0.05%. It happened because, at the high value of NPs concen-
tration, there is no formation of the nanosorption film by which
there was a decrement in the number of nucleation sites between
the test surface and nanofluid. Therefore, there is obstruction of
HTC at the high value of ϕv . Bellerova et al. (2010) performed
the experimental investigation of HT characteristics on the circu-
lar austenitic steel (AISI-314) plate using the TiO2 and Al2 O3 spray
cooling system. The authors claimed that cooling fluid with Al2 O3
NPs causes a higher decrease in cooling intensity than that by the
TiO2 based nanofluid. Jha et al. (2015) experimentally investigated
the cooling rate of the stainless steel plate (AISI-304) that is placed
on the moving slider using the Al2 O3 air-atomized spray cool-
ing system. The highest cooling rate is achieved for the SDS-based
Al2 O3 –water nanofluid that was 61% more than the water cooling
05 August 2023 12:20:12
(143 ○ C/s). However, the cooling rate is 5% less than the water cool-
ing system for the Tween-20 based Al2 O3 –water nanofluid. There-
fore, surfactant added nanofluids promote the cooling rate up to
an optimal level, but beyond that point, there is a decrement in
cooling rate.
Jackson et al. (2014) studied the surface wettability of a double-
wall carbon nanotube (DWCNT) based nanofluid in a droplet
impingement cooling system. For the experimental analysis, a cir-
cular silicon wafer coated on the top side with a superhydrophobic
or hydrophilic coating is used. The authors reported that poor wet-
tability results in lesser HTR. Therefore, the convective HTR is more
for the nanofluid based cooling fluid as compared to a simple water
cooling rate due to lower ST and higher k. Malý et al. (2018) exper-
imentally investigated the effect of NPs concentration on the spray
cooling system using the pressure-swirl atomizer nozzle at 0.5 MPa
injection pressure. The viscosity is found as a primary breakup, while
the ST was treated as the secondary breakup process for nanofluids.
Bansal and Pyrtle (2007) performed the experiments to study the HT
characteristics of the Al2 O3 –water nanofluids spray cooling system
on the rectangular copper block. The study observed that higher HF
could be achieved with nanofluids if there is no sticking of NPs on
the heated surface. Wang et al. (2020) experimentally investigated
the effect of NP type and surfactant effect on HT characteristics
in a spray cooling system. The study observed that the maximum
HF increased from 3.36 MW/m2 to 3.48 MW/m2 in the 30 mm
radius circle of the test surface from the central impinging point. The
results also showed that the contact angle decreased with the increase
in the surfactant concentration due to a decrease in ST and enhance-
ment in the wettability of the nanofluids. Table VIII summarizes
the work of the various researchers on the nanofluids spray cooling
system.
32, 121301-19
 TABLE VIII. Summary of work done by the various researchers on the nanofluids spray cooling system.

Test surface
Size of Type of Test surface dimensions
NPs Particle Flow parameter nozzle used material and and spray
References NP used (dn and ln ) concentration BF DA used of nanofluid (d and α) its shape head Observations
Physics of Fluids

Bansal and Al2 O3 ϕm = 0.5% DI water Qa = 0.1434 l/m2 Full cone Copper L × B × t = 24 The study observed
Pyrtle (2007) s–0.1989 l/m2 s misting spray block, × 24 × 3 mm3 that higher HF could
nozzle at a rectangular be achieved with

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pressure nanofluids if there
ranging from 30 was no sticking of
psi to 60 psi NPs on the heated
test surface

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503

Bellerova Al2 O3 78 nm Water Citric acid M = 0.017 kg/s– Full cone nozzle Austenitic H z = 40 mm– Cooling fluid with
et al. (2010) 0.333 kg/s with α = 45○ steel 160 mm Al2 O3 NPs causes a
TiO2 82 nm
(AISI-314), higher decrease in
circular cooling intensity than
the TiO2 based
nanofluid

Bellerová Al2 O3 80 nm ϕv = DI water Citric acid M = 0.0167 kg/s– Full cone spray SS plate DT = 20 mm, The HTC is
et al. (2012a) 0.002 97– 0.0333 kg/s nozzle with d = (AISI-314) , H z = 40 mm– approximately
0.164 5 1.2 mm and α = circular 160 mm decreased by 20% on
45○ increasing the ϕv of
NP from 0 to 0.1645
due to a decrease in
impact duration time
caused by the
presence of NPs

Chang et al. Al2 O3 35 nm ϕv = 0.001%– DI water G = 26.433 kg/m2 Full cone Copper test DT = 20 mm, The ϕv = 0.001%
(2012) 0.05% s–176.75 kg/m2 s circular surface H z = 17 mm yields the maximum
hydraulic nozzle polished with HTC followed by
REVIEW

with d = 0.7 mm the 0.025%, 0%, and

and α = 15○ roughness of 0.05%. It is observed
0.2 μm or 1.4 because there was no
μm, circular formation of a
nanosorption film at
the low value of ϕv

Bellerová Al2 O3 80 nm ϕv = Water M = 0.0167 kg/s– Solid stream Stainless steel DT = 20 mm, The HTC is
et al. (2012b) 0.002 97%– 0.0333 kg/s nozzle with plate H z = 40 mm– approximately
0.164 5% d = 1.3 mm (AISI-314), 160 mm decreased by 45% on
circular increasing the ϕv of
scitation.org/journal/phf

NP suspension from
0 to 0.1645

32, 121301-20
05 August 2023 12:20:12
 TABLE VIII. (Continued.)

Test surface
Size of Type of Test surface dimensions
NPs Particle Flow parameter nozzle used material and and spray
References NP used (dn and ln ) concentration BF DA used of nanofluid (d and α) its shape head Observations
Physics of Fluids

Tseng et al. TiO2 82 nm ϕv = Water Citric acid M = Full cone Stainless steel DT = 20 mm, The HTC increased
(2014) 0.002 47%– 0.016 67 kg/s– spray nozzle plate, circular H z = 40 mm– with an increase in
0.140 5% 0.033 3 kg/s with d = 160 mm the G of the spray

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1.2 mm and while it decreased
α = 45○ with an increase in
the concentration of
NPs

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503

Jackson et al. DWCNT dn = 3.5 nm ϕw = Water Full cone Silicon wafer DT = The study observed
(2014) ln = 1 μm–10 0.25%–0.75% nozzle coated on the 100 mm, that poor wettability
μm top side with t = 0.5 mm results in lesser HTR.
a superhy- Thus, the convective
drophobic or HTR is more for
hydrophilic nanofluid based
coating, cooling fluid as
circular compared to water
cooling fluid due to
lower ST and higher k

Lee and Cu 45 nm ϕv = 0.1% Water PVP (110 Air atomized Stainless steel L × B × t = A maximum cooling
Irmawati ppm) SDS nozzle plate 100 × 100 × rate of 267 ○ C/s is
(2015) (600 ppm) (AISI-314), 6 mm3 achieved for the
CTAB square Tween-20 based
(240 ppm) nanofluid, which was
Tween-20 31.53% and 59.88%
(56 ppm) higher than the
nanofluid without
any DA and pure
REVIEW

water sprays

Ravikumar Al2 O3 ≤13 nm ϕv = 0.1% Water SDS (600 Air-atomized Stainless steel L × B × t = The maximum
et al. (2015a) ppm) nozzle plate 100 × 100 × cooling rate is
Tween-20 AISI-304), 6 mm3 obtained for the
(56 ppm) square Al2 O3 –water–Tween-
20 nanofluid
(221 ○ C/s), then
followed by
Al2 O3 –water–SDS
(198 ○ C/s) and then
scitation.org/journal/phf

Al2 O3 –water
(184 ○ C/s)

32, 121301-21
05 August 2023 12:20:12
 TABLE VIII. (Continued.)

Test surface
Size of Type of Test surface dimensions
NPs Particle Flow parameter nozzle used material and and spray
References NP used (dn and ln ) concentration BF DA used of nanofluid (d and α) its shape head Observations
Physics of Fluids

Hsieh et al. Ag 10 nm–30 nm ϕv = DI water G= Full cone Cu, square AT = 1 cm2 The HF for Ag–water
(2015) 0.0025%– 0.000 65 kg/cm2 spray nozzle nanofluid is found to
0.0075% s–0.001 1 kg/cm2 s with d = be 274 W/cm2 at G of

Published under license by AIP Publishing

0.5 mm and 0.0011 kg/cm2 s
α = 50○
MWCNT 10 nm–
30 nm and ln

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503

= 10 μm–15
μm

Jha et al. Al2 O3 5 nm–50 nm ϕv = 0.1% Water SDS (600 Q = 0.0002 m3 /s Air atomized Stainless L×B×t= The highest cooling
(2015) while ppm) nozzle steel plate 100 × 100 × rate is achieved for the
maximum Tween-20 (AISI-304) 6 mm3 , H z = SDS based
NPs size of (56 ppm) placed on 60 mm Al2 O3 –water nanofluid
10 nm the that was 61% more
moving than the water cooling
slider with (143 ○ C/s), while for
a ceramic the Tween-20 based
brick Al2 O3 –water
nanofluid, the cooling
rate is 5% less than
water cooling

Lee and AgH2 O ϕv = Water Full cone Stainless H z = 20 mm– Numerically, the HTR
Irmawati Al2 O3 0.5%–2.5% nozzle steel plate, 100 mm is found to be
(2015) CuO square maximum for the TiO2
SiO2 based nanofluid that is
REVIEW

TiO2 32.64% more than the

simple water cooling
fluid at the optimum
Hz = 60 mm

Chang et al. Al2 O3 47 nm ϕv = 0.001% DI water M = 0.08 kg/s Full cone Cu, DT = 20 mm The HTC decreased
(2018) and 0.05% circular circular H z = 17 mm with the increase in the
nozzle with spray operating time at
an orifice ϕv = 0.01% and 0.05%.
diameter of However, there is a
0.7 mm and negligible effect of
scitation.org/journal/phf

α = 15○ spray operating time

on HTC with water

32, 121301-22
05 August 2023 12:20:12
 TABLE VIII. (Continued.)

Test surface
Size of Type of Test surface dimensions
NPs Particle Flow parameter nozzle used material and and spray
References NP used (dn and ln ) concentration BF DA used of nanofluid (d and α) its shape head Observations
Physics of Fluids

Hsieh et al. Ag 10 nm–50 nm ϕv = DI water G= Full cone Cu, square AT = 2 cm2 The highest HTR is
(2016) 0.04%–0.1% 0.0015 kg/cm2 s spray nozzle achieved for the

Published under license by AIP Publishing

Al 10 nm–50 nm with d = Al2 O3 nanofluid up
Al2 O3 5 nm–30 nm 0.27 mm to 375 W/cm2 with
Fe3 O4 10 nm–20 nm ϕv = 0.1%
SiO2 10 nm–25 nm

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503

TiO2 10 nm–30 nm
MWCNT 10 nm–30 nm
and ln =
10 μm–15 μm

Chakraborty Cu–Zn–Al DI water SDS Air atomized Stainless L×B×t = 100 The highest cooling
et al. (2019b) LDH hybrid (200–800 nozzle steel plate, × 100 × rate of 174.8 ○ C/s is
nanofluid ppm) square 6 mm3 achieved for the SDS
Tween-20 based Cu–Zn–Al
(28–70 LDH nanofluid with
ppm) 600 ppm
concentration of the
surfactant and it was
30.7% more than
water

(Wang et al., Cu <100 nm ϕv = DI water Tween-20 Q = 1.5 l/min–30 Air atomized Stainless L×B×t= The maximum HF
2020) 0.1%–0.5% l/min nozzle with steel plate 150 × 80 × increased from 3.36
air (AISI- 20 mm3 MW/m2 to 3.48
compressor 304), MW/m2 in the
pressure rectangu- 30 mm radius circle
REVIEW

range (0 lar of the test surface

MPa–0.8 from the central
MPa) impinging point and
contact angle
CuO
decreased with the
Al2 O3
increase in the
surfactant
concentration due to
a decrease in ST and
enhancement in wet
ability of the
scitation.org/journal/phf

nanofluids

32, 121301-23
05 August 2023 12:20:12
 Physics of Fluids
VI. HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IN JET
IMPINGEMENT COOLING
Earlier, several studies have been developed on the impinging
air jets. However, a great deal of attention has recently been paid
to the impinging liquid jets due to their soaring HT rate compared
to the impinging air jets. The liquid jet impinging cooling system is
generally used in the steel industry, cooling of heat engines, nuclear
power processes, cooling of gas turbine components, material pro-
cessing, and electronic devices. As the nanofluid is a new type of heat
carrier, thus, the combined effect of jet impingement and nanofluid
has the great potential to enhance the thermal management of a vari-
ety of industrial applications. In this section, the effect of nanofluids
on jet impingement cooling is studied.
Mitra et al. (2012) experimentally observed the effect of TiO2
and MWCNT based nanofluids on the rectangular steel plate with
laminar jet impingement. It is reported that the HT performance
increased marginally by using the nanofluid jet as compared to the
water jet because of 3 s earlier shift of the film boiling regime to tran-
sition boiling regime for the nanofluid. Sarkar et al. (2018) studied
the cooling characteristics of the stainless steel plate using TiO2 –
water nanofluid jet impingement. The study observed that the cool-
ing rate increased with the increase in the concentration of NP (until
40 ppm), and the maximum cooling rate was 19% more than that of
the pure water coolant.
Nguyen et al. (2009) experimentally studied the effect of a con-
fined and submerged jet impingement cooling on the cylindrical
aluminum block using the Al2 O3 -based nanofluid and observed that
there is no appreciable HT enhancement using the nanofluid jet
compared to water jet at the very small and very large H z . On the
contrary, there is the highest HT enhancement at the intermediate
H z = 5 mm and ϕv = 2.8%. Barik et al. (2020) performed the exper-
iments to investigate the effectiveness of the laminar flow jet on the
hot steel plate at T s = 900 ○ C using Al2 O3 –water. The study observed
that maximum HTR is achieved at ϕv = 0.15% due to enhancement
in HTC and decrement in Pr. However, the laminar jet is observed
up to Re = 2000.
Liu and Qiu (2006) investigated the jet boiling HT character-
istics of the CuO-based nanofluid on the flat circular surface and
claimed that the boiling curves for the nanofluid based WF shifted
toward the right. Therefore, the boiling HT for the nanofluid is
lesser as compared to water. However, it is observed that CHF for
the nanofluid based WF increased approximately by 25% because of
a decrement in the solid–liquid contact angle that was due to the
formation of a very thin sorption layer on the heated test surface.
Li et al. (2012) conducted experiments to investigate the effect of
submerged jet impingement cooling using the Cu-based nanofluid
on the circular copper piece. Two types of NPs sizes of Cu (25 nm
and 100 nm) were introduced in the BF and it is noticed that HTC
of the nanofluid with Cu NPs of 25 nm size is more than that of the
100 nm size based nanofluid. The study also proposed an HT cor-
relation for the submerged jet impingement. Nguyen et al. (2008)
studied the HT performance of a 36 nm Al2 O3 -based nanofluid
in the submerged jet impingement cooling. The HTC is measured
to be 8150 W/m2 K, 7540 W/m2 K, and 6360 W/m2 K for the
nanofluid at M = 0.04 kg/s, 0.02 kg/s, and 0.01 kg/s, respectively.
The authors also noticed the erosion effect of the nanofluid on the
impinging surface of aluminum and observed that 14 mg total loss
Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503
Published under license by AIP Publishing
REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf
of mass was seen after 180 h of observation time in experimenta-
tions. Therefore, the nanofluid showed a very clear erosion effect
on the impinging surface. Zeitoun and Ali (2012) performed the
experiments on a circular copper and aluminum plate to investi-
gate the HTR in a free jet impingement. It is observed that the
nanofluid enhanced the HT. Therefore, there is an increment in
Nu and it reached 100 at the high value of ϕv and the fixed value
of Re.
Jaberi et al. (2013) experimentally studied the HT performance
over a circular aluminum disk due to the 15 nm Al2 O3 based
nanofluid using the free jet impingement and claimed that the HTC
increased with an increase in the concentration of NP until 0.0597
wt. %. Thereafter, it decreased to 0.0757 wt. % on adding more NPs.
Gherasim et al. (2009) conducted experiments to investigate the HT
enhancement of the Al2 O3 NPs suspended in the BF inside a radial
flow cooling system. The quantity of heat supplied is estimated by
the electric power applied with seven cartridge heaters of 200 W
each. The target test section is insulated with the use of a Teflon
disk and insulating foam. The authors reported that the Nu increased
with increasing Re and ϕv .
Naphon and Wongwises (2011) experimentally investigated the
HT characteristics of jet impingement of mini-rectangular fin heat
sink for cooling CPU (central processing unit) of a PC (personal
computer) using a TiO2 based nanofluid. The heat sink is fabri-
cated by the copper block using WEDM (wire electric discharge
machining), and nanofluid is prepared by the ultrasonic method.
Figure 20 shows the coolant inlet and outlet position of WF on the
05 August 2023 12:20:12
mini-rectangular fin heat sink installed on the CPU of the PC.
Figures 21 and 22 represent the variation of Nu and thermal
resistance to M, respectively. The comparison is given for the jet
nanofluids impingement cooling system, jet liquid cooling system,
and conventional cooling system. Out of these cooling systems, the
average Nu for the jet nanofluids impingement cooling is more than
the other cooling techniques because of the change in fluid transport
properties and flow characteristics of the WF due to the suspension
of NPs. On the contrary, the thermal resistance for the jet nanofluid
impingement cooling system is lower than the other cooling systems.
The thermal dispersion is the reason for this.
Modak et al. (2015) performed experiments to test out the HTC
of the rectangular stainless steel foil (AISI-304) by the jet Al2 O3 –DI
water nanofluid impingement cooling. The HTC is estimated by
recording the thermal images using the IR thermal imaging cam-
era (Model: A655SC, FLIR System) for a time step of 0.03 s and with
a scanning rate of 100 fps. The results of the test indicated that at
ϕv = 0.6%, the maximum HF is found to be 112.8% more than the
pure water, and at ϕv = 0.15%, the HF was 32.8% more than pure
water. A correlation is developed for the Nu as a function of Re,
Pr, and H z /d by the study as given by the following equation: the
correlation is valid in the range of 6 < Hz/d < 12, 5.29 < Pr < 5.54,
5000 < Re < 12 000,
Hz 0.16
Nu = 10.56 × 103 (Re)0.453 (Pr)−6.24 ( ) . (4)
d
Modak et al. (2018) conducted experiments to analyze the HT
characteristics of the CuO–water-based jet on the rectangular stain-
less steel foil (AISI-304). The initial temperature of the test surface is
500 ○ C. The authors claimed that the Nu increased with increasing
the Re and ϕv , and it is observed that the maximum value of HTC
32, 121301-24
 Physics of Fluids REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf

FIG. 20. Mini-rectangular fin heat sink

installed on the CPU of PC. Repro-
duced with permission from Naphon, P.
and Wongwises, S., “Experimental study
of jet nanofluids impingement system
for cooling computer processing unit,”
J. Electron. Cool. Therm. Control 01(3),
38–44 (2011). Copyright 2011 Author(s),
licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 License.

is achieved at the stagnation point and also explained the concept of 5.29 < Pr < 5.54, and 5000 < Re < 12 000:
surface wettability on the tested foil by measuring the contact angle
Hz −0.25
Nu = 51.29(Re)0.6 (Pr)−2.93 ( )
using the video-based optical contact angle measuring system. The
. (5)
experiments are conducted using the three types of WF, i.e., pure d
water, CuO based nanofluid (ϕv = 0.15%), and CuO based nanofluid
(ϕv = 0.60%) impinged on the same size of heated test foil, as shown Naphon and Nakharintr (2012) studied the HT performance of
in Fig. 23. The contact angle on heated test foil 1, foil 2, and foil 3 a 21 nm TiO2 –water nanofluid in an impinging jet on the rectan-
was measured to be 85.8○ , 69.2○ , and 54.3○ respectively. The results gular mini-fin heat sink made of an aluminum block fabricated by
indicate that there was a significant increment in wettability due to WEDM with AT = 6600 mm2 . It is observed that the HTC for the
the impingement of NPs on the test surface. nanofluid is better as compared to water. Nayak et al. (2016) con-

05 August 2023 12:20:12

The different experimental conditions were the same as
(Modak et al., 2015), and a correlation was proposed for the Nu in
terms of Re, Pr, and H z /d by the study as represented in the follow-
ing equation and it was applicable in the ranges of 6 < H z /d < 12,
ducted experiments to investigate the HT characteristics of Al2 O3
and TiO2 based nanofluids on a square steel plate by jet impinge-
ment cooling. For the experimental analysis, two nozzles are used so
that jets from the nozzles covered the total AT of the test surface. The
study observed that the HTC decreased with the increase in the H z

FIG. 21. The plot between Nu and mass flow rate for different cooling techniques.
Reproduced with permission from Naphon, P. and Wongwises, S., “Experimental
study of jet nanofluids impingement system for cooling computer processing unit,”
J. Electron. Cool. Therm. Control 01(3), 38–44 (2011). Copyright 2011 Author(s),
licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
FIG. 22. The plot between thermal resistance and mass flow rate for different cool-
ing techniques. Reproduced with permission from Naphon, P. and Wongwises, S.,
“Experimental study of jet nanofluids impingement system for cooling computer
processing unit,” J. Electron. Cool. Therm. Control 01(3), 38–44 (2011). Copyright
2011 Author(s), licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503 32, 121301-25

Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Physics of Fluids REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf

FIG. 23. The contact angle for the heated test foil after
liquid jet impingement. (a) Pure water, (b) 0.15% ϕv CuO–
water nanofluids, and (c) 0.60% ϕv CuO–water nanofluids.
Reproduced with permission from Modak, M., Chougule,
S. S., and Sahu, S. K., “An experimental investigation
on heat transfer characteristics of hot surface by using
CuO–water nanofluids in circular jet impingement cooling,”
J. Heat Transfer 140(1), 012401–012410 (2018). Copyright
2018 ASME.

and jet pressure due to more spread out of the nanofluid on the test Mahian et al. (2019b) presented the detailed numerical approaches
surface. Lv et al. (2017b) studied the HT performance of free single for solving the transport equations associated with nanofluids. As
jet using SiO2 –water at different ϕv . The result showed that applica- flow fields related to nanofluids have non-linear equations, it is
tion of nanofluids significantly improved the HT characteristics of very difficult to solve them analytically. Therefore, computational
the free single jet and convective HTC increases with the increase in techniques are used to solve them.
the Re and ϕv . Kanokjaruvijit et al. (2010) used the conservation laws to study
Lv et al. (2017a) experimentally studied the HT performance of the 2D axisymmetric laminar jet impingement on a test surface
the Al2 O3 –distilled water nanofluids used in a free single jet imping- under the uniform HF condition. The used conservation laws are
ing cooling system on a horizontal cylinder. The study suggested that represented by the following equations where vr , vz , P, and T rep-
there is a relationship between the HTC and NPs suspended in the resent the radial velocity, axial velocity, pressure, and temperature
BF and revealed that HTC is directly proportional to NPs concen- field:
tration and Re. On the contrary, it decreased with the increase in the Continuity equation:
impact angle. Therefore, the main reason for the linear increment
between HTC and Re is due to the enrichment of jet velocity. Due
1 ∂ ∂vz
to that, the jet impinged on the test surface more vigorously, which (rvr ) + = 0. (6)
leads to thinning of the boundary layer near the test surface, and r ∂r ∂z

05 August 2023 12:20:12

consequently, the HT becomes brutal. Momentum equation in axial direction:
Barewar et al. (2019) conducted experiments to investigate the
HT characteristics of the free circular impinging jet on the circu-
∂vz ∂vz ∂p 1 ∂ ∂vz ∂ 2 vz
)=− (r )+ ].
lar flat Cu surface using the ZnO–water nanofluid. The nanofluids
ρ(vr + vz + μ[ (7)
are prepared by a two-step method. The results showed that increas- ∂r ∂z ∂z r ∂r ∂r ∂z2
ing concentration of NPs leads to an increase in HTC and a maxi-
mum 51% enhancement of HTC is observed as compared to water Momentum equation in radial direction:
coolant at ϕv = 0.1% and high Re. Sun et al. (2019) investigated
the HT characteristics of conventional impinging jets and swirling ∂vr ∂vr ∂p ∂ 1 ∂(rvr ) ∂ 2 vr
impinging jets on different heat exchange surfaces using the hybrid ρ(vr + vz )=− + μ[ ( )+ ]. (8)
∂r ∂z ∂r ∂r r ∂r ∂z2
nanofluid (Ag–MWCNT–water). The study showed that k of the
hybrid nanofluid was higher than the MWCNT–water nanofluid. Energy equation:
Furthermore, HT effectiveness increased with the increase in the
mass fraction. The study also observed that the HT effect of swirling
∂T ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T ∂2T
ρcp (vr ) = k[ (r ) + 2 ].
impinging jets was higher than the conventional impinging jets
+ vz (9)
under the same experimental conditions. Amjadian et al. (2020) car- ∂r ∂z r ∂r ∂r ∂z
ried out experimental investigations to study the HT performance
of circular jet impingement on the aluminum disk kept at con-
stant HF using Cu2 O–water. The study observed that the nanofluid
increased the HT by 45% at ϕw = 0.07% and Re = 7330 compared
to water as WF. The study suggested that complicated HT attributes
are achieved using impingement jet cooling due to the high speed
of the jet on the surface, local thinning of boundary layers, flow
circulations, and pressure gradients.
In the numerical investigation, Lorenzo et al. (2011), Manca
et al. (2011), Gherasim et al. (2011), and Roy et al. (2004) con-
sidered the single-phase model to investigate the HT characteris-
tics of the impinging jet cooling system using the nanofluids as FIG. 24. Sketch of the geometrical model with boundary conditions. Reproduced
WFs; however, Fard et al. (2010) and Peng et al. (2014) suggested with permission from Lorenzo et al., “Numerical study of laminar confined imping-
that the single-phase model approach is not in agreement with the ing slot jets with nanofluids,” Adv. Mech. Eng. 4, 248795 (2011). Copyright 2011
Author(s), licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
results obtained by the experimental studies at a high value of ϕv .

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503 32, 121301-26

Published under license by AIP Publishing
 TABLE IX. Summary of work done by various researchers on the nanofluids jet impingement cooling system.

Test surface
Size of Flow Test surface dimensions
Type of NPs Particle DA parameter of Type of material and and standoff
Physics of Fluids

References study NP used (dn and ln ) concentration BF used nanofluid jet used its shape distance Observations

Liu and Qiu Experimental CuO 50 nm ϕw = 0.1%–2% Water Free Circular DT = 30 mm The CHF for the

Published under license by AIP Publishing

(2006) nanofluid based WF
increased approximately
by 25% because of a
decrement in

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503

solid–liquid contact
angle. Therefore, there is
the formation of a very
thin sorption layer on
the heated test surface

Nguyen et al. Experimental Al2 O3 36 nm ϕv = 0%–6% Distilled M = 0.025 kg/s– Confined Aluminum DT = 30 mm, There is no appreciable
(2009) water 0.2 kg/s and sub- block, Hz = HT enhancement using
merged circular 2 mm–5 mm the nanofluid jet
compared to the water
jet at very small and very
large H z . On the
contrary, there was the
Re = 3 800–
highest HT
88 000
enhancement at the
intermediate H z = 5 mm
and ϕv = 2.8%

Gherasim Experimental Al2 O3 47 nm ϕv = 18% Water Re = 494 and Confined Aluminum DT = The Nu increased with
et al. (2009) 505 disk, circular 300 mm, an increase in the Re and
ϕv and noticed that the
REVIEW

HT enhancement was
possible using nanofluid
in confined laminar
flows

Naphon and Experimental TiO2 21 nm ϕv = 0.4% DI M = 0.008 kg/s– Confined Heat sink Channel The CPU temperature
Wongwises water 0.02 kg/s made of the width with nanofluid jet
(2011) copper block = 1 mm, impingement is 3%
H z = 2 mm lower than the jet
impingement without
nanofluid cooling
scitation.org/journal/phf

32, 121301-27
05 August 2023 12:20:12
 TABLE IX. (Continued.)

Test surface
Size of Flow Test surface dimensions
Type of NPs Particle DA parameter of Type of material and and standoff
References study NP used (dn and ln ) concentration BF used nanofluid jet used its shape distance Observations
Physics of Fluids

Mitra et al. Experimental TiO2 20 nm–70 nm ϕw = 0.01% Water Confined Steel plate, L×B×t The HT performance
(2012) –0.1% rectangular = 295 × 125 increased marginally
× 4 mm3 , H z by using the

Published under license by AIP Publishing

MWCNT 20 nm–70 nm
= 15 mm nanofluid jet as
and
compared to the
ln = 100 nm
water jet
–500 nm

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503

Li et al. Experimental Cu 25 nm and ϕv = 1.5% Water Submerged Copper piece, DT = 20 mm, The nanofluids
(2012) 100 nm –3% circular Hz = showed a remarkable
2 mm–6 mm increment in the
HTR. The HTC of the
nanofluid with Cu
NPs of 25 nm size is
more than that of the
100 nm size based
nanofluid

Zeitoun and Experimental Al2 O3 10 nm ϕv = 6.6% Water Free Copper and DT The study observed
Ali (2012) and 10% aluminum = 80 mm– that the nanofluid
plate, circular 113 mm, enhances the HTR,
H z = 50 mm and thereby, Nu also
increases

Naphon and Experimental TiO2 21 nm ϕv = 0.2% Water Re = 3000 Confined Heat sink AT = The study observed
Nakharintr –8000 made of the 0.0158 m2 that the HTC of the
(2012) aluminum nanofluid is better
block by than that of water
WEDM
REVIEW

Nguyen et al. Experimental Al2 O3 36 nm ϕv = 5% Water M Submerged Aluminum DT = 30 mm, The nanofluid
(2012) = 0.025 kg/s block, H z = 2 mm– showed a very clear
–0.2 kg/s circular 10 mm erosion effect on the
impinging surface

Jaberi et al. Experimental Al2 O3 15 nm ϕw = Water SDBS Re = 4200– Free Aluminum DT = 300 mm The HTC increased
(2013) 0.0198%– (0.1 8200 disk, circular with increase in the
0.0757% wt. %) concentration of NP
till 0.0597 wt. %;
thereafter, it
scitation.org/journal/phf

decreases till 0.0757

wt. %

32, 121301-28
05 August 2023 12:20:12
 TABLE IX. (Continued.)

Test surface
Size of Flow Test surface dimensions
Type of NPs Particle DA parameter of Type of material and and standoff
References study NP used (dn and ln ) concentration BF used nanofluid jet used its shape distance Observations
Physics of Fluids

Selimefendigil Numerical Al2 O3 ϕv = 0%–6 % Water Re = 100–400 Pulsating Computational The flow was Numerically, the
and Öztop rectangu- domain of 2D, incom- maximum HT
(2014) lar physical pressible, enhancement using a

Published under license by AIP Publishing

jet problem Newtonian, pulsating jet is found
considered and laminar to be 18.8% at ϕv
= 6% and Re = 200

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503

Modak et al. Experimental Al2 O3 40 nm ϕv = 0.15% DI water Re = 5000 Circular Stainless steel L × B × t = At ϕv = 0.6%, the
(2015) and 0.6% –12 000 jet foil 300 × 45 × maximum HF is
(AISI-304), 0.15 mm3 found to be 112.8%
rectangular more than that of DI
water

Nayak et al. Experimental Al2 O3 20 nm ϕw = 0.01% Water Free Steel plate, L×B×t= The HTC decreased
(2016) –0.07% square 120 × 120 × with an increase in
4 mm3 , H z /d the H z and jet
= 20 pressure due to the
TiO2
more spread out of
the nanofluid on the
test surface

Lv et al. Experimental SiO2 50 nm ϕv = 1%–3% Water Re = Free jet Cu cylinder DT The study reported
(2017b) 8000–13 000 = 100 mm, that the application of
height of nanofluids
cylinder significantly improves
= 60 mm the HT characteristics
of free single jet and
convective HTC
REVIEW

increases with the

increase in the Re and
ϕv

Lv et al. Experimental Al2 O3 30 nm ϕv = Distilled Free Horizontal Diameter of Experimentally, a

(2017a) 0.5%–2% water Cu cylinder cylinder relationship between
= 100 mm, HTC and NPs
length suspended in the BF
= 50 mm, is obtained, which
H z /d = 2–5 showed that the HTC
is directly
scitation.org/journal/phf

proportional to NPs
concentration

32, 121301-29
05 August 2023 12:20:12
 TABLE IX. (Continued.)

Test surface
Size of Flow Test surface dimensions
Type of NPs Particle DA parameter of Type of material and and standoff
References study NP used (dn and ln ) concentration BF used nanofluid jet used its shape distance Observations
Physics of Fluids

Modak et al. Experimental CuO 40 nm ϕv = 0.15% Water Re = Circular Stainless steel L×B×t The Nu increased
(2018) and 0.6% 5 000–12 000 jet foil = 300 × 45 with an increase in
(AISI-304), × 0.15 mm3 , the Re and ϕv and it

Published under license by AIP Publishing

rectangular H z /d = 6 and is observed that the
12 maximum value of
HTC was achieved
at the stagnation

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503

point

Sarkar et al. Experimental TiO2 135 nm ϕw = 0.001%– Water Q = 0.0266 m3 /s Free Stainless steel L × B × t = The cooling rate is
(2018) 0.01% plate, 100 × 100 × increased with
rectangular 6 mm3 , H z = increase in the
400 mm concentration of NP
(ϕw = 0.004%) and
the maximum
cooling rate was
19% more than the
pure water coolant

Lamraoui Numerical Al2 O3 30 nm ϕv = 0%–5% Water Re = 25–300 Confined The flow field H z /d = 2–6, The local Nu is
et al. (2018) slot jet in 2D and length of much higher for
fluid physical section = non-Newtonian
properties 31 cm nanofluid compared
are assumed with the Newtonian
as constant flow. However, the
pumping power
showed a sudden
rise with ϕv for the
REVIEW

Newtonian
nanofluid.

Barewar et al. Experimental ZnO ϕv = DI water Acetyl- Re = 2192–9241 Circular Copper, DT = 90 mm, Increasing
(2019) 0.02%–0.1% acetone free jet circular H z /d = 2–7.5 concentration of
surfac- NPs leads to an
tant increase in HTC and
a maximum 51%
enhancement of
HTC is observed as
compared to water
scitation.org/journal/phf

coolant at ϕv = 0.1%
and high Re

32, 121301-30
05 August 2023 12:20:12
 TABLE IX. (Continued.)

Test surface
Size of Flow Test surface dimensions
Type of NPs Particle DA parameter of Type of material and and standoff
References study NP used (dn and ln ) concentration BF used nanofluid jet used its shape distance Observations
Physics of Fluids

Sun et al. Experimental Ag 50 nm ϕv = 0.01% Water Discharge Swirl jet Copper, DT = 60 mm, The HT effect of
(2019) range of circular H z /d = 2–4 swirling impinging jets

Published under license by AIP Publishing

flow meter is higher than the
Q= conventional
0.1 m3 /h– impinging jets under
MWCNT 20 nm ϕv = 0.01%

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503

0.6 m3 /h the same experimental
–30 nm –0.05%
conditions and hybrid
nanofluids showed the
enhancement in HT

Abdelrehim Numerical Al2 O3 ϕv = 1%–4% Water Re = Confined The hot wall H z /d = 0.5–4, Two-phase models
et al. (2019) 100–400 jet has a L/d = 60 exhibit high local and
constant HF average Nu due to
of 70 W/cm2 consideration of heat
exchange term in
energy equation with a
maximum 150%
enhancement in
average Nu at ϕv = 4%
and H z /d = 4

Li et al. Experimental Al2 O3 ϕv = 0–3.5% Water Re = Confined T-wave and Frequency The T-wave is more
(2019) 10 000– periodic R-wave types (f ) = conductive to HT
20 000 pulsating of waveforms 10 Hz–50 Hz enhancement at large
slot jet Re and ϕv , although
the application of
REVIEW

nanofluids improves
the local and average
HTC

Chen and Experimental SiO2 ϕv = 1%–3% Water Re = Concave The study observed
Cheng (2020) 4500–9500 surface that a 5.85% rise of
covered with HTC was obtained
bilayer Cu using the SiO2 –water
metal porous nanofluid at ϕv = 3%
block and Re = 9500 in
comparison with that
of the water coolant
scitation.org/journal/phf

32, 121301-31
05 August 2023 12:20:12
 Physics of Fluids REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf

HTC and decrement in

Re = 7330 compared to
due to enhancement in

45% at ϕw = 0.07% and

achieved at ϕv = 0.15%
The maximum HTR is
Lorenzo et al. (2011) presented a numerical study to investigate

300 mm, d = increased the HT by

observed up to Re =
the HT characteristics of the Al2 O3 –water nanofluid in a confined
Observations

The Cu2 O–water

Pr. However, the
impinging jet system. The laminar flow regime impinges on the test

laminar jet was

surface. A geometrical two-dimensional model is considered for the

water as WF
computational analysis, and the top surface was assumed at adiabatic
wall condition. A single-phase model approach is adopted because
nanofluids are treated as a Newtonian fluid for low ϕv . The study

2000
observed that the local HTC and Nu were highest at the stagnation
point and increases with increasing the Re and ϕv . Figure 24 shows
L × B × t = 20
and standoff
Test surface

6 mm3 , H z =
dimensions

the sketch of the geometrical model with boundary conditions. The

distance

temperature and velocity of jets are T f and uf , respectively.

10 mm

12 mm
× 20 ×

Manca et al. (2011) numerically investigated the thermal and

DT =
fluid dynamics performance and observed the temperature and
velocity field in a confined slot impinging jet on a heated sur-
material and
Test surface

constant HF,
face using the Al2 O3 –water nanofluid with ϕv = 1%–6%. The flow
its shape

rectangular
(AISI-304),

Aluminum
Steel plate

impinged on the test surface was treated as turbulent, and the single-
disk with

circular
phase model approach is considered for analysis. The highest value
of Nu is obtained at the stagnation point and the least value at the
end of the test surface. Similarly, Abdelrehim et al. (2019) investi-
gated the study of single-phase and two-phase models of nanofluids
jet used
Type of

Laminar

Circular

on the hydrodynamic and HT characteristics of confined imping-

ing jets. The results showed that two-phase models exhibit high
jet

jet

local and average Nu due to the consideration of heat exchange

DA parameter of

term in the energy equation with maximum 150% enhancement

nanofluid

0.56 cm3 /s

in average Nu at ϕv = 4% and H z /d = 4, while single-phase mod-

Flow

els showed twice the pumping power compared with two-phase

11 082
7330–
Re =

models.
Q=

05 August 2023 12:20:12

Peng et al. (2014) numerically investigated the jet impinge-
ment cooling on the bottom of the piston to reduce the heat in
used

the operation of an engine and authors also explored the different

turbulence models for the jet impingement and analyze the temper-
DI water

ature and velocity fields for the single-phase and multiphase models.
Water
BF

Lamraoui et al. (2018) numerically investigated the hydrodynamic

and thermal behavior of the Newtonian/non-Newtonian Al2 O3 –
water nanofluid in a confined impinging slot jet. The result showed
concentration

15 nm–25 nm ϕw = 0.03%–

that the HTR increased with the increase in the Re and ϕv . The study
0.1%–0.2%
Particle

also noted that the local Nu is much higher for the non-Newtonian
0.075%

nanofluid compared with the Newtonian nanofluid. However, the

ϕv =

pumping power showed a sudden rise with ϕv for the Newtonian

nanofluid.
(dn and ln )

Li et al. (2019) investigated numerically the HT and flow struc-

Size of
NPs

ture of periodic pulsating nanofluid slot jet impingement with tri-

angular wave (T-wave) and rectangular wave (R-wave) types of
waveforms. The governing equations (continuity, momentum, and
energy) are based on Reynolds Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS)
NP used

Experimental Al2 O3

Cu2 O

based on the assumptions made. The study observed that T-wave is

more conductive to HT enhancement at large Re and ϕv . Although,
the application of nanofluids improved the local and average HTC.
Experimental

Chen and Cheng (2020) numerically analyzed the HT enhance-

Type of

ment of jet impingement cooling on a concave surface covered with

study

a bilayer Cu metal porous block using the SiO2 –water nanofluid.

TABLE IX. (Continued.)

The effect of porosity on monolayer, thickness ratio between upper

and lower porous layers of bilayer Cu metal porous block, and
nanofluid bulk concentration are analyzed using the k–ε turbulent
et al. (2020)
References

Barik et al.

model coupled with Brinkman–Forchheimer extended Darcy equa-

Amjadian

tions. The study observed that a 5.85% rise of HTC was obtained
(2020)

using the SiO2 –water nanofluid at ϕv = 3% compared to the water

coolant.

Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503 32, 121301-32

Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Physics of Fluids
Table IX presents a summary of the work done by var-
ious researchers on the jet impingement cooling system using
nanofluids.
VII. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE
DIRECTIONS
In the paradigm of the spray/jet impingement cooling tech-
nologies, which are largely used in different areas starting from
macroscale applications such as the hot rolling steel mill, laser diode
array, pulsed power weapon systems, avionic systems, and phased-
array radars, core of a nuclear reactor, external wall of the com-
bustion engine, gas turbine, and annealing and quenching of met-
als to the applications at the microscale such as microelectronic
chips, several aspects have been studied thoroughly essentially for
the advancements of the cooling performance. This paper gives a
comprehensive review of two cooling techniques—spray cooling and
jet impingement cooling—and their applications. There are four
basic heat transfer mechanisms pertinent to the spray/jet impinge-
ment cooling such as film boiling, transition boiling, nucleate boil-
ing, and forced convection. First, droplet characteristics (e.g., size,
velocity, and density) can be altered, tunable through the mass flux
from the nozzle. Second, because of the multiple-nozzle system, the
high spray rate can be utilized toward the enhancement of cool-
ing efficiency. Third, the performance of impingement cooling will
involve many other factors such as thermal resistance and stand-
off distance (optimum nozzle to test surface distance), and hence,
these factors are expected to have a significant effect. The nanoflu-
ids have earned huge popularity in the domain of heat transfer.
Following this aspect, the application of nanofluids finds signifi-
cance in the spray/jet impingement cooling as well. Spray cool-
ing with nanofluids has great potential to enhance the heat trans-
fer rate because of their improved conductivity (in comparison to
the base fluid). The higher hear flux then plays an important role
in the underlying cooling phenomenon. We would like to men-
tion one important point here; it is likely that the additional aspect
of sticking the nanofluids on the test surface may then need spe-
cial attention. As the nanofluids are becoming very common in
cooling applications, used in both spray cooling and jet impinge-
ment cooling, effort has also been taken to model the underlying
phenomenon numerically. It is less likely that nanofluids can be
treated as the single phase in the modeling approach for a rela-
tively higher volume fraction of particles, while the single-phase
model approach works perfectly for a low volume fraction of par-
ticles. A mismatch between experimentally measured data and those
obtained from the modeling framework at a higher volume fraction
of nanoparticles may be due to the difference in thermal proper-
ties. Moreover, the cooling performance as realized by the higher
heat transfer (equivalently, higher Nu) seems to be higher for the jet
impingement cooling of nanofluids. The attributable physical rea-
soning behind this observation such as a change in fluid properties
and flow characteristics of the working fluid due to suspension of
nanoparticles will be of significant interest. The effect of nanofluids
on the heat transfer becomes adverse as the impact duration time
of nanoparticles on the heated surface, which includes the impact of
both the solid nanoparticles and base fluid on the solid test surface,
decreases.
Phys. Fluids 32, 121301 (2020); doi: 10.1063/5.0033503
Published under license by AIP Publishing
REVIEW scitation.org/journal/phf
This review also discusses the effect of surfactant concentration,
which is mixed with the working fluid, and its consequence, the sur-
face tension on the heat transfer coefficient of the spray cooling. To
give an overview of this effect, it is mentioned here that depending
on the physico-chemical aspects of the surfactant, e.g., its concen-
tration, molecular weight, and solution temperature (temperature of
the working fluid), the magnitude of the surface tension changes.
The effect of the change in surface tension is realized by a change in
wettability of the fluid, which, in turn, offers an avenue for the alter-
ation in the transport of heat during the cooling process. It may be
mentioned here that the contact angle decreases on decreasing the
ST; hence, the effective area of impinging droplets on the test sur-
face increases. Following this, the finer droplets can easily evaporate
from the heated test surface. The surfactants added in the working
fluid act as a dispersing agent and increase the effective dispersion
of nanoparticles. It is likely that following this effect, the thermal
conductivity of nanofluids will increase significantly.
Several studies have been conducted to investigate the heat
transfer performance of nanofluid spray and jet impingement cool-
ing. Despite having plenty of studies available in this area, there is
a need to elaborate on some areas due to complicated random pro-
cesses in these cooling methods and uncertainties in the interactions
of various parameters. A few interesting questions from the perspec-
tive of fluid dynamics and the underlying thermo-hydrodynamics
are needed to be investigated:
● Spreading of liquid droplets plays a key role in nanofluid
05 August 2023 12:20:12
spray and jet impingement cooling. Research efforts to study
the droplets’ impingement of nanofluids on heated solid test
surfaces are very sparse. This aspect demands the investiga-
tion of the dynamics of droplets impinging on the solid test
surface.
● The phenomenon such as splashing and renouncing of the
droplets impingement is responsible for decreasing the heat
transfer coefficient. Thus, it may be important to determine
the factors on which this phenomenon depends.
● Also, from the viewpoint of thermo-hydrodynamics, it is
important to recognize the transport of heat by the evapora-
tion and forced convection in the non-boiling regime. This
aspect will be of interest for the optimization of different
parameters and flow geometry.
● Clearly, there is a need to explore the effect of the sorp-
tion layer thickness formed on the test surface during the
droplets impingement and to analyze the spray interactions
that will provide the information of heat transfer character-
istics of nanofluids’ spray.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are very thankful to Mr. Krishan Kumar, Research
Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. B. R. Ambed-
kar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, India, for his valu-
able discussions and suggestions.
DATA AVAILABILITY
The data that support the findings of this study are available
from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
32, 121301-33
 Physics of Fluids
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