1.

GUTU FEYSEL ……………………………3068/14

2. MARIAMAWIT DEREJE…………….……3333/14
3. ZEKARIAS ………….
SCHOOL to: HARAMAYA
HARAMAYA
Group
Mr.Mintesinot
Submitted OF WATER
Members: UNIVERSITY
ENGINEERING
RESOURCE
INSTITUTE
Group ANDTECHNOLOGY
Assignment
OF ENVIRONMENTAL
ID: Submission
18 JAN 2024
Date
4. NATINAEL FISCHA……………………..………………..4973/14
ASSIGNMENT
5. GALAT OF BUILDING CONSTRACTION
………………………………………/14
 BUILDING CONSTRACTION ASSIGNMANET

1. Discuss the conditions for selection of structural systems.

ANSWER;
Selecting the right structural system for a building is crucial for its safety, performance,
and cost-effectiveness. There are many factors to consider, and the conditions for
selection can be broadly categorized into four main groups:

1. Site and environmental conditions:

 Soil type and bearing capacity: This determines the foundation required and how loads
are distributed. Poor soil might necessitate deeper foundations, while stable rock might
allow for shallower ones.
 Topography: Sloping or uneven ground adds complexity and might require specialized
foundation or retaining wall systems.
 Seismic activity: In earthquake-prone zones, structures need to resist lateral
forces, often by employing shear walls or bracing systems.
 Wind speed and exposure: Buildings in high-wind areas require increased structural
strength and stiffness to prevent excessive sway.
 Climate: Extreme temperatures and precipitation can affect material choices and
construction methods. Freeze-thaw cycles can put stress on concrete structures, while
humid climates may require corrosion-resistant materials.

2. Architectural design and functional requirements:

 Building size and shape: Larger or irregularly shaped buildings may require more
complex structural systems. Open floor plans with large spans need different support
than buildings with many internal walls.
 Floor loads and usage: Different occupancies have different load requirements. Office
buildings need less robust support than warehouses that store heavy equipment.
 Number of stories and height: Taller buildings experience greater wind and seismic
loads, necessitating strong and stiff structural systems.
 Architectural finishes and aesthetics: Some construction methods and materials offer
more flexibility for incorporating desired finishes, while others might have limitations.

3. Construction and economic considerations:

1
 Material availability and cost: Locally available materials might be cheaper and easier to
source, while imported materials could be more expensive. Different materials have
varying costs and construction time implications.
 Construction expertise and labor availability: Some systems require specialized skills or
equipment, which might not be readily available in all locations.
 Construction schedule: Certain systems offer faster construction times, which can be
crucial for projects with tight deadlines.
 Maintenance and long-term costs: Different materials have varying levels of durability
and require different levels of maintenance, impacting long-term costs.

4. Sustainability and environmental impact:

 Material sourcing and embodied energy: Choosing recycled or locally sourced materials
can reduce the environmental footprint of the structure.
 Construction methods and waste generation: Some systems minimize waste production
and use fewer resources during construction.
 Energy efficiency and thermal performance: The chosen system can affect the building's
energy consumption and overall thermal performance.

It's important to note that these conditions often interact and influence each other.
Selecting the optimal structural system involves a balancing act, considering all relevant
factors and their interconnectedness. A qualified structural engineer can assess the
specific conditions of your project and recommend the most appropriate and cost-
effective system for your needs.

2. Briefly discuss the advantage and disadvantages of concrete, steel,

timber and precast concrete structures.
ANSWER;
Advantages and Disadvantages of Building Materials:
Concrete:

Advantages:

 Durable: Resistant to fire, wind, water, and pests. Has a long lifespan.
 Versatile: Can be molded into almost any shape and size.
 Strong: Excellent compressive strength for foundations and load-bearing structures.

2
 Fire-resistant: Provides natural fire protection.
 Relatively affordable: Readily available and often cheaper than other materials.

Disadvantages:

 Heavy: Requires sturdy foundations and can limit design flexibility.

 Brittle: Susceptible to cracking and failure under tension.
 Slow construction: Requires time for curing and setting.
 High embodied carbon: Cement production contributes significantly to greenhouse gas
emissions.

Steel:

Advantages:

 Strong and ductile: Can withstand high tensile and compressive forces.
 Lightweight: Ideal for long-span structures and high-rise buildings.
 Fast construction: Prefabricated components allow for quick assembly.
 Recyclable: Most steel is recycled, reducing environmental impact.

Disadvantages:

 Corrosive: Requires maintenance and protection from rust.

 Fire-sensitive: Can buckle and deform at high temperatures.
 Susceptible to thermal expansion: Needs careful detailing to manage temperature
effects.
 Expensive: Can be more costly than concrete or timber depending on project
requirements.

Timber:

Advantages:

 Renewable resource: Sustainable and environmentally friendly.

 Strong and lightweight: Good for load-bearing structures and lightweight construction.
 Natural insulator: Provides good thermal and acoustic insulation.

3
 Aesthetically pleasing: Offers a warm and natural look.

Disadvantages:

 Fire-prone: Requires fireproofing treatment.

 Susceptible to rot and insect damage: Needs protective measures against biological
degradation.
 Limited size and availability: Large beams and long spans might not be readily
available.
 Dimensional instability: Can shrink and warp with changes in humidity.

Precast Concrete:

Advantages:

 Fast construction: Pre-fabricated components reduce on-site construction time.

 High quality control: Elements are cast in controlled factory conditions.
 Durable: Offers similar durability to cast-in-place concrete.
 Cost-effective: Can be cost-competitive for repetitive elements or modular designs.

Disadvantages:

 Limited design flexibility: Pre-fabricated elements have fixed dimensions and

configurations.
 Transportation costs: Moving large precast elements can be expensive.
 Installation requirements: Requires specialized equipment and expertise for lifting and
placement.
 Not suitable for all projects: May not be ideal for complex or unique designs.

3. Concrete structures are the most widely used structural systems in

our country. Why?
ANSWER;
here are several reasons why concrete structures are the most widely used structural
systems in many countries, including yours. Here are some of the key factors:

Versatility: Concrete can be formed into virtually any shape or size, making it suitable
for a wide range of structures, from small homes to massive skyscrapers and bridges.

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 Strength and Durability: Concrete is incredibly strong and resistant to compression, fire,
wind, and earthquakes. It also requires minimal maintenance, making it a cost-effective
choice over the long term.

Cost-Effectiveness: Concrete is readily available and relatively inexpensive compared to

other building materials like steel or wood. This makes it a particularly attractive option
for large-scale projects and infrastructure development.

Availability of Materials: The raw materials for concrete – cement, sand, and gravel –
are readily available in most parts of the world, further reducing the overall costs and
logistical challenges of using concrete.

Ease of Construction: Concrete can be easily mixed and poured, allowing for efficient
construction processes. Additionally, precast concrete elements can be prefabricated
off-site and then assembled on-site, further speeding up construction timelines.

Fire Resistance: Concrete is naturally fire-resistant, making it a safer choice for

buildings where fire safety is a major concern, such as hospitals and schools.

Thermal Mass: Concrete has a high thermal mass, meaning it absorbs and releases
heat slowly. This can help to regulate the temperature inside buildings, reducing energy
consumption for heating and cooling.

Sustainability: While concerns about the carbon footprint of cement production exist,
research is ongoing to develop more sustainable concrete mixes and production
methods. Additionally, the long lifespan and low maintenance requirements of concrete
structures can contribute to their overall sustainability.

4. Explain in brief, the essential requirements of a floor. Discuss the

requirements that must be fulfilled for a floor to serve its function.
ANSWER;
A good floor serves as the sturdy and stable foundation for any space, silently
supporting our daily activities. But beyond just being a platform, floors fulfill various
crucial functions, and meeting these requirements is essential for their success. Here's
a breakdown of the key demands a floor must address:

1. Structural Integrity:

 Strength: The floor must be able to safely bear the weight placed upon it, including
furniture, people, and equipment. This involves a robust underlying structure like

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 concrete slabs, steel beams, or timber joists, depending on the intended use and span
of the floor.

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Floor joists

 Stability: The floor should not deflect or bounce excessively under load, ensuring a
sense of firmness and preventing tripping hazards. Proper structural design and
adequate support beams are crucial for achieving this stability.
 Durability: Floors need to withstand wear and tear from everyday use. This means
choosing materials resistant to scratches, dents, and impacts, like hardwood, tile, or
reinforced concrete, depending on the expected traffic and activity level.

2. Environmental Performance:

 Moisture Resistance: In areas prone to moisture, like kitchens and bathrooms, floors
should be waterproof or have good water-resistant properties. This prevents water
damage to the substructure and promotes hygiene. Materials like ceramic tiles, vinyl
flooring, or treated wood are suitable options.

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Waterproof flooring

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 Thermal Insulation: Floors can contribute to a building's thermal comfort by providing
insulation from the ground or lower levels. Materials like cork, bamboo, or insulated
concrete slabs can help retain heat in the winter and keep spaces cooler in the summer.
 Soundproofing: In multi-story buildings or noisy environments, soundproofing becomes
crucial. Floors with good acoustic insulation can dampen noise transmission between
levels, improving privacy and comfort. Materials like carpet, rubber underlayment, or
specialized acoustic flooring panels can be effective.

3. Safety and Accessibility:

 Slip Resistance: Floors in wet areas or high-traffic zones should have good slip
resistance to prevent accidents. Textured surfaces, specialized coatings, or non-slip
mats can be used to enhance traction.

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Slip resistant flooring

 Accessibility: For people with disabilities, floors should be level and free of
obstacles. Ramps, handrails, and proper door clearances can be incorporated to ensure
easy and safe movement.
 Fire Safety: In case of fire, floors should be able to resist the spread of flames and
provide a safe escape route. Fire-resistant materials like concrete or specific types of
treated wood are essential for ensuring occupant safety.

4. Aesthetics and Functionality:

 Aesthetics: Floors play a significant role in the overall design and feel of a
space. Choosing materials and finishes that complement the desired ambiance and
style is crucial. From the warmth of hardwood to the sleekness of polished concrete, a
wide variety of options cater to different tastes and preferences.
 Functionality: The type of flooring should be suitable for the intended use of the
space. For example, gyms require shock-absorbing floors, while kitchens benefit from

7
 easy-to-clean surfaces. Choosing the right material for the function ensures optimal
performance and longevity.
 Maintenance: Some materials require minimal maintenance, while others demand
regular cleaning and upkeep. Considering the time and effort you can dedicate to floor
care is essential for making an informed choice.

5. Briefly discus the different factors which affect the choice of floor
finishing.
ANSWER;
Choosing the right floor finish is crucial for the aesthetics, functionality, and longevity of
your space. Here are some key factors to consider:

1. Function and usage:

 Foot traffic: High-traffic areas like hallways and kitchens need durable finishes like tile or
laminate, while bedrooms can get away with softer options like carpet.

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Hightraffic hallway with tile flooring

 Moisture exposure: Bathrooms and laundry rooms require waterproof finishes like
ceramic or vinyl, while living rooms can handle wood or carpet.

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Laundry room with vinyl flooring

 Slip resistance: Floors near pools or in wet areas should have a textured finish to
prevent slips.

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Pool deck with textured tile flooring

2. Aesthetics and style:

 Desired look: Consider the overall style of your space and choose a finish that
complements it. For example, wood floors add warmth and elegance, while tile can be
modern or rustic.

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 Opens in a new window

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Tile flooring in a modern kitchen

 Color and pattern: The color and pattern of your floor finish can affect the size and feel
of a space. Light colors make a room seem larger, while dark colors can add drama.

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Lightcolored flooring in a small living room

3. Maintenance and budget:

 Ease of cleaning: Some finishes, like hardwood, require more care than others, like
tile. Consider your lifestyle and how much time you want to spend cleaning.

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 Cost: Floor finishes vary widely in price. Hardwood and stone are more expensive than
tile or vinyl. Set a budget before you start shopping.

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Hardwood flooring

4. Additional factors:

 Sound insulation: Carpet absorbs sound better than hard floors.

 Thermal insulation: Wood and carpet provide better insulation than tile or concrete.
 Environmental impact: Consider using sustainable materials like cork or bamboo.

6. Explain in brief, the function of a wall. Discuss the requirements that

must be fulfilled for a wall to serve its function. Briefly discus the
different factors which affect the choice of material for wall
construction.
ANSWER;
The Function of a Wall:
Walls serve multiple functions, often simultaneously:

1. Enclosure and Division: They define and separate spaces within a building or structure.
2. Structural Support: They bear the weight of roofs, floors, and other elements.
3. Security and Shelter: They protect against weather, intruders, and external noise.

11
4. Environmental Control: They provide thermal insulation and contribute to climate
control.
5. Aesthetics and Decoration: They offer a surface for artistic expression and enhance the
visual appeal of a space.

Requirements for Walls:

For walls to function effectively, they must:

 Be structurally sound: Strong enough to bear their own weight and any applied loads.
 Be weatherproof: Resist rain, wind, and other elements.
 Provide thermal insulation: Maintain comfortable temperatures inside the building.
 Offer soundproofing: Reduce noise transmission between spaces.
 Be durable: Withstand wear and tear over time.
 Meet fire safety regulations: Resist fire spread and provide safe escape routes.

Factors affecting Material Choice:

The choice of material for wall construction depends on several factors:

 Function and location: Load-bearing walls require different materials than non-load-
bearing ones, and exterior walls need weather resistance.
 Structural requirements: Strength, weight, and flexibility are crucial considerations.
 Climate and environment: Materials must be suited to the local climate and
environmental conditions.
 Cost and availability: Budget constraints and material availability play a significant role.
 Aesthetics and desired finishes: Brick, wood, or concrete offer different visual textures
and require specific finishing techniques.
 Sustainability: Environmental impact and the use of recycled materials are increasingly
important factors.

7. Write short notes on a) Header bond b) Stretcher bond c)Dutch bond

d) Garden wall bond.
ANSWER;
Sure, here are some short notes on header bond, stretcher bond, Dutch bond, and
garden wall bond:

Header bond:
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 All bricks are laid with their headers (short ends) facing the wall surface.
 Creates a strong and stable bond, but requires more bricks than other bonds.
 Often used for curved surfaces, such as well linings or arches.

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Header bond bricks

Stretcher bond:

 All bricks are laid with their stretchers (long sides) facing the wall surface.
 Creates a weaker bond than header bond, but is more economical.
 Used for thin walls, such as partition walls or garden walls.

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Stretcher bond bricks

Dutch bond:

 A variation of English bond, with alternate courses of headers and stretchers.

 The vertical joints between stretchers in alternate courses do not align vertically.

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 Creates a strong and decorative bond.

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Dutch bond bricks

Garden wall bond:

 A variation of Flemish bond, with one header to three stretchers in each course.
 The header is centered over the stretcher in the middle of a group of three in the course
below.
 Creates a strong and decorative bond, often used for garden walls.

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Garden wall bond bricks

8. Define a partition wall. Enumerate a) various requirements to be
fulfilled by a partition wall b) different types of partition walls.
ANSWER;

Partition Walls: Definition, Requirements, and Types

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 A partition wall is an interior wall that divides a space into smaller compartments without
supporting any structural load. It's essentially a non-load-bearing wall that helps define
the layout and functionality of a building.

Requirements for Partition Walls:

1. Structural Stability: They should be able to resist their own weight and withstand minor lateral
forces like wind or bumping.

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stable partition wall

2. Sound Insulation: Depending on the purpose of the divided space, they should provide
adequate soundproofing to maintain privacy and minimize noise transfer.

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soundproof partition wall

3. Fire Resistance: In case of a fire, they should be able to contain the flames and prevent their
spread for a specific duration to allow safe evacuation.

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 Opens in a new window partitionwall.en.made-in-
china.com

fireresistant partition wall

4. Thermal Insulation: They should help regulate the temperature within the divided
spaces, improving energy efficiency and occupant comfort.

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thermally insulated partition wall

5. Durability: They should withstand everyday wear and tear and be easy to maintain over time.

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 durable partition wall

6. Aesthetics: The material and design should complement the overall interior design and create a
visually appealing space.

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aesthetically pleasing partition wall

Types of Partition Walls:

1. Drywall:

 Most common type, made of gypsum board sheets attached to a metal frame.
 Lightweight, versatile, and easy to install and modify.
 Offers good sound and fire resistance with proper insulation.

2. Wood:

 Provides warmth and aesthetic appeal, suitable for traditional and modern styles.
 Offers good sound insulation but requires proper treatment for fire resistance.
 More susceptible to moisture damage and may require regular maintenance.

3. Glass:

 Creates an open and airy feel, allowing natural light to penetrate.

 Offers good soundproofing with thicker panels or additional insulation.
 Can be susceptible to breakage and may require privacy solutions like blinds or films.

4. Bricks:

 Provide excellent sound and fire resistance, creating a sturdy and durable partition.

17
 Offer a classic and timeless look with various design possibilities.
 Require professional installation and can be more expensive than other options.

5. Movable Partitions:

 Made of lightweight panels that can be folded, stacked, or rolled to adjust the space layout.
 Ideal for flexible and multi-functional spaces like conference rooms or offices.
 May offer limited sound insulation and require careful handling.

9. What do you understand by concrete block masonry? State the

advantages of hollow concrete block masonry. State the various points
that should be kept in mind both during production and construction of
concrete blocks.
ANSWER;
Concrete Block Masonry: Understanding, Advantages,
and Considerations
Understanding:

Concrete block masonry is a construction technique that uses concrete masonry units
(CMUs), also known as concrete blocks, to build walls, foundations, and other
structures. These blocks are typically made from a mixture of cement, aggregates (sand
and gravel), and water, offering various strengths and sizes depending on the intended
use.

Advantages of Hollow Concrete Block Masonry:

 Lightweight: Hollow blocks are lighter than solid concrete blocks, reducing the structural
load on the foundation and making them easier to handle during construction.
 Improved Insulation: The cavities in hollow blocks provide thermal and acoustic
insulation, making them energy-efficient and reducing noise transmission.
 Cost-effective: Hollow blocks are generally cheaper than solid blocks, lowering the
overall construction cost.
 Reinforcement Flexibility: The cavities can be easily filled with grout or steel
reinforcement, enhancing the structural strength and stability of the wall.
 Versatility: Hollow blocks come in various shapes and sizes, allowing for easy
construction of complex structures and architectural details.

18
 Points to Consider during Production and Construction:

Production:

 Material Quality: Use high-quality ingredients, ensure proper mixing and casting, and
adhere to standard specifications for strength and durability.
 Curing Conditions: Control temperature and humidity during curing to prevent shrinkage
cracks and ensure proper strength development.
 Surface Finish: Consider different surface textures and finishes to suit the aesthetic
requirements of the project.

Construction:

 Foundation Preparation: Ensure the foundation is strong and level to support the wall
load evenly.
 Mortar Mix: Use the correct mortar mix (type and consistency) for optimal bonding and
performance.
 Block Laying: Lay blocks systematically, maintaining proper bond
patterns, alignment, and joint thickness.
 Reinforcement: Follow construction plans and building codes regarding the placement
and type of reinforcement for structural stability.
 Moisture Control: Implement proper drainage and waterproofing measures to prevent
moisture ingress and damage to the walls.

Additional Points:

 Fire Resistance: Concrete block walls offer excellent fire resistance, making them
suitable for building firewalls and other safety-critical structures.
 Sustainability: Utilizing recycled materials in concrete block production can contribute to
a more sustainable construction practice.

10. What is plastering and explaining brief the objects of plastering? b)

Describe the requirements of a good plaster. c) Mention at least four
defects in plastered work
ANSWER;

Plastering: A Smooth Finish for Your Walls

19
 Plastering is a construction technique that involves applying a layer of plaster, a
moldable paste-like material, to walls and ceilings to create a smooth, leveled surface.
This not only enhances the aesthetics of the space but also serves several functional
purposes.

Objects of Plastering:

 Protection: Plaster protects the underlying brick, concrete, or cinder block walls from
moisture, fire, and physical damage.
 Smoothing uneven surfaces: It conceals imperfections like cracks, bumps, and
gaps, creating a level and visually appealing surface.
 Soundproofing: A thick layer of plaster can dampen sound transmission between rooms.
 Insulation: Plaster provides some thermal insulation, helping to regulate the temperature
within the building.
 Decorative finishes: Plaster can be textured, painted, or adorned with moldings to
create various decorative effects.

Requirements of a Good Plaster:

 Adhesion: The plaster should strongly adhere to the underlying surface without cracking
or peeling.
 Strength and durability: It should be resistant to physical impact, moisture, and
temperature changes.
 Workability: The plaster should be easy to mix, apply, and smooth during the application
process.
 Fire resistance: In some cases, fire-resistant plaster is necessary for safety purposes.
 Appearance: The finished plaster surface should be smooth, even, and visually
appealing.

Defects in Plastered Work:

 Cracks: These can be caused by shrinkage, movement of the underlying structure, or

improper mixing and application of the plaster.

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Plaster cracks on wall

 Blistering: This occurs when air trapped beneath the plaster expands due to heat or
moisture, causing bubbles to form on the surface.

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Plaster blistering on wall

 Unevenness: Improper application or inadequate leveling can result in

bumps, ridges, and dips on the plastered surface.

Opens in a new window in.pinterest.com

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 Uneven plastered wall

 Discoloration: Staining, bleeding, or patchy color variations can be caused by factors

like water leaks, dampness, or improper paint application.

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Discolored plastered wall

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23
24
 HALL EFFECT OF SEMICONDUCTOR

What is Semiconducto

Semiconductor is a class of materials with a conductivity level between that of conductors and
insulators, not too conductive like metals, and not too resistant like insulators, it is the backbone
of modern electronics. Among these materials, silicon stands out as the most prevalent, although
germanium and other compounds are also integral to electronic device fabrication. These
materials possess a remarkable characteristic: their electrical conductivity can be altered in
response to external factors such as temperature, light, or voltage. At the heart of electronic
innovation, semiconductors serve as the fundamental components in transistors, diodes, and
integrated circuits.

25
Types of semiconductors

Semiconductors can be broadly categorized into two main types based on their conductivity:
intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic (doped) semiconductors. Here's an overview of these
types:

1. Intrinsic Semiconductors:

 Pure Semiconductors: Intrinsic semiconductors are pure semiconducting materials

without intentional impurities. Silicon and germanium are common intrinsic
semiconductors.
 Electron-Hole Pairs: In these materials, electrons can be excited from the valence band to
the conduction band, leaving behind electron-hole pairs. These electron-hole pairs
contribute to electrical conductivity.

2. Extrinsic Semiconductors:

 Doping: Extrinsic semiconductors involve intentional introduction of specific impurities

into the crystal lattice of intrinsic semiconductors. This process is known as doping.
 N-Type Semiconductors: Doping with elements like phosphorus or arsenic introduces
extra electrons into the crystal lattice, creating an excess of negative charge carriers. This
results in an N-type (negative-type) semiconductor.
 P-Type Semiconductors: Doping with elements like boron or aluminum introduces
"holes" or places where electrons can exist in the crystal lattice. This creates an excess of
positive charge carriers, leading to a P-type (positive-type) semiconductor.

3. Compound Semiconductors:

 Combining Elements: Compound semiconductors are formed by combining elements

from different groups in the periodic table. Examples include gallium arsenide (GaAs)
and indium phosphide (InP).
 Enhanced Properties: Compound semiconductors often exhibit enhanced electrical
properties compared to pure elemental semiconductors, making them suitable for specific
applications.

26
4. Organic Semiconductors:

 Carbon-Based Materials: Organic semiconductors are composed of carbon-based

molecules. They are commonly used in organic electronics, including organic light-
emitting diodes (OLEDs) and organic photovoltaic cells (OPVs).
 Flexibility and Lightness: Organic semiconductors offer the advantage of flexibility and
lightness, making them suitable for applications like flexible displays and electronic
paper.

HALL EFFECT OF SEMICONDUCTOR

What is Hall Effect of Semiconductor?

The Hall Effect is a phenomenon that occurs in semiconductors when an electric current flows
through a conductor in the presence of a magnetic field, resulting in the generation of a
transverse voltage across the conductor.

The Hall Effect was first discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879 and later explained by the physicist
Edwin Hall. It has since become a crucial phenomenon in the field of semiconductor physics and
electronics. The Hall Effect in semiconductors is used to measure the charge carrier
concentration, mobility, and conductivity of the material, providing valuable information for
device characterization and optimization.

 When a magnetic field is applied to a current carrying conductor in a direction

perpendicular to that of the flow of current, a potential difference or transverse electric
field is created across a conductor. This phenomenon is known as Hall Effect

27
  Free electrons and
holes are the very small
particles. So we can’t see
them directly with our eyes. But by using Hall Effect we can easily identify whether the
semiconductor is a p-type or n-type.
 The free electrons in a semiconductor or conductor always try to flow in a straight path.
However, because of the continuous collisions with the atoms, free electrons slightly
change their direction. But if the applied voltage is strong enough, the free electrons
forcefully follow the straight path. This happens only if no other forces are applied to it in
other direction.
 If we apply the force in other direction by using the magnetic field, the free electrons in
the conductor or semiconductor change their direction.

Consider a material, either a semiconductor or conductor as shown in the below figure. When a
voltage is applied, electric current starts flowing in the positive x-direction (from left to right).

28
  If a magnetic field is applied to this current carrying conductor or semiconductor in a
direction perpendicular to that of the flow of current (that is z-direction), an electric field
is produced in it that exerts force in the negative y direction (downwards). This
phenomenon is known as Hall Effect. Hall Effect was named after American Physicist
Edwin Hall, who discovered the phenomenon in 1879.

Hall Effect in n-type semiconductor

If the magnetic field is applied to an n-type semiconductor, both free electrons and holes are
pushed down towards the bottom surface of the n-type semiconductor. Since the holes are
negligible in n-type semiconductor, so free electrons are mostly accumulated at the bottom
surface of the n-type semiconductor.

This produces a negative charge on the bottom surface with an equal amount of positive charge
on the upper surface. So in n-type semiconductor, the bottom surface is negatively charged and
the upper surface is positively charged.

As a result, the potential difference is developed between the upper and bottom surface of the n-
type semiconductor. In the n-type semiconductor, the electric field is primarily produced due to
the negatively charged free electrons. So the hall voltage produced in the n-type semiconductor
is negative.

29
Hall Effect in p-type semiconductor
If the magnetic field is applied to a p-type semiconductor, the majority carriers (holes) and the
minority carriers (free electrons) are pushed down towards the bottom surface of the p-type
semiconductor. In the p-type semiconductor, free electrons are negligible. So holes are mostly
accumulated at the bottom surface of the p-type semiconductor

So in the p-type semiconductor, the bottom surface is positively charged and the upper surface is
negatively charged.

As a result, the potential difference is developed between the upper and bottom surface of the p-
type semiconductor. In the p-type semiconductor, the electric field is primarily produced due to
the positively charged holes. So the hall voltage produced in the p-type semiconductor is
positive. This leads to the fact that the produced electric field is having a direction in the positive
y-direction.

Hall Effect helps to determine the type of a material

We can easily identify whether a semiconductor is p-type or n-type by using Hall Effect. If the
voltage produced is positive then the material is said to be p-type and if the voltage produced is
negative then the material is said to be n-type.

The Hall voltage is directly proportional to the current flowing through the material, and the
magnetic field strength, and it is inversely proportional to the number of mobile charges in the

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material, and the thickness of the material. So in order to produce a large Hall voltage we need to
use a thin material with few mobile charges per unit volume.

 Mathematical expression for the Hall voltage is given by

Where,

VH = Hall voltage

I = current flowing through the material

B = magnetic field strength

q = charge

n = number of mobile charge carriers per unit volume

d = thickness of the material

APPLICATIONS OF HALL EFFECT SEMICONDUCTOR

1. Hall Effect Sensors:

 Current Sensors: - Hall Effect sensors are commonly used to measure current in
electronic circuits. When a current-carrying conductor (e.g., a wire) is placed in a
magnetic field, a voltage proportional to the current is generated perpendicular to both the
current and magnetic field directions. This voltage can be measured and used to
determine the current flowing through the conductor.
 Proximity Sensors: Hall Effect sensors are used in proximity detection applications.
Changes in magnetic field strength near the sensor can be detected, making them suitable
for applications such as door position sensing, rotary encoders, and other proximity-based
switches.

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2. Magnetic Field Measurement:

 Magnetometers: Hall Effect sensors are used in magnetometers to measure the strength
and direction of magnetic fields. This is useful in applications like electronic compasses
in smartphones and other devices.

3. Speed and Position Measurement:

 Speed Sensors: In automotive and industrial applications, Hall Effect sensors can be
used to measure the speed of rotating components (e.g., wheels, gears). Magnets
attached to the rotating component induce a Hall voltage, and the frequency of this
voltage is proportional to the speed of rotation.
 Position Sensors: Hall Effect sensors can also be employed to determine the position of
an object in a magnetic field. This is valuable in applications like throttle position
sensors in automobiles.

4. Semiconductor Characterization:

 Carrier Mobility Measurement: The Hall Effect is often used to characterize

semiconductor materials by measuring the Hall mobility of charge carriers. This
information is crucial for understanding the electrical properties of semiconductors and
optimizing their performance in electronic devices.

5. Thermal Imaging:

 Thermomagnetic Imaging: In thermomagnetic imaging, the Hall Effect can be used to

visualize temperature variations in materials. As temperature changes, the mobility of
charge carriers also changes, affecting the Hall voltage. This can be applied in thermal
imaging devices.

6. Integrated Circuits:

 Integrated Magnetic Field Sensors: Hall Effect sensors are integrated into semiconductor
devices, offering compact and efficient solutions for applications such as detecting
magnetic fields, measuring current, and providing feedback in electronic systems.

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These applications highlight the versatility of the Hall Effect in semiconductor devices, enabling
a wide range of functionalities in electronics, automotive systems, industrial equipment, and
more.

Conclusion

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