Review and Summary

In this chapter, we have studied the effect of forces on particles, i.e., on bodies
of such shape and size that we may assume all forces acting on them apply R
at the same point. P

Resultant of Two Forces

Forces are vector quantities; they are characterized by a point of application, A Q
a magnitude, and a direction, and they add according to the parallelogram law Fig. 2.30
(Fig. 2.30). We can determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant R
of two forces P and Q either graphically or by trigonometry using the law of
cosines and the law of sines [Sample Prob. 2.1].

Components of a Force
Any given force acting on a particle can be resolved into two or more com-
ponents, i.e., it can be replaced by two or more forces that have the same
effect on the particle. A force F can be resolved into two components P and Q
by drawing a parallelogram with F for its diagonal; the components P and Q
are then represented by the two adjacent sides of the parallelogram (Fig. 2.31).
Again, we can determine the components either graphically or by trigonom-
etry [Sec. 2.1E].

Q
F

Fig. 2.31

Rectangular Components; Unit Vectors

A force F is resolved into two rectangular components if its components Fx
and Fy are perpendicular to each other and are directed along the coordinate
axes (Fig. 2.32). Introducing the unit vectors i and j along the x and y axes,
respectively, we can write the components and the vector as [Sec. 2.2A] y

Fx 5 Fxi Fy 5 Fy j (2.6)
Fy = Fy j
and
F
F 5 Fxi 1 Fyj (2.7) j
␪
where Fx and Fy are the scalar components of F. These components, which
i Fx = Fx i x
can be positive or negative, are defined by the relations

Fx 5 F cos θ Fy 5 F sin θ (2.8) Fig. 2.32

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 When the rectangular components Fx and Fy of a force F are given, we
can obtain the angle θ defining the direction of the force from

Fy
tan θ 5 (2.9)
Fx

We can obtain the magnitude F of the force by solving one of the equations
(2.8) for F or by applying the Pythagorean theorem:

F 5 2F 2x 1 F 2y (2.10)

Resultant of Several Coplanar Forces

When three or more coplanar forces act on a particle, we can obtain the
rectangular components of their resultant R by adding the corresponding com-
ponents of the given forces algebraically [Sec. 2.2B]:

Rx 5 oFx Ry 5 oFy (2.13)

The magnitude and direction of R then can be determined from relations

similar to Eqs. (2.9) and (2.10) [Sample Prob. 2.3].

Forces in Space
A force F in three-dimensional space can be resolved into rectangular com-
ponents Fx, Fy, and Fz [Sec. 2.4A]. Denoting by θx, θy, and θz, respectively,
the angles that F forms with the x, y, and z axes (Fig. 2.33), we have
Fx 5 F cos θx Fy 5 F cos θy Fz 5 F cos θz (2.19)

y y y

B B B

Fy Fy Fy
A A A
F ␪y F
␪x F
O O O
Fx D x Fx D x Fz Fx D x
Fz Fz ␪z

E C E C E C

z z z
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.33

Direction Cosines
The cosines of θx, θy, and θz are known as the direction cosines of the force F.
Introducing the unit vectors i, j, and k along the coordinate axes, we can write
F as
F 5 Fxi 1 Fy j 1 Fzk (2.20)
or
F 5 F(cos θxi 1 cos θy j 1 cos θzk) (2.21)

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This last equation shows (Fig. 2.34) that F is the product of its magnitude F
and the unit vector expressed by

l 5 cos θxi 1 cos θy j 1 cos θzk

y

Fy j
λ (Magnitude = 1)
cos ␪y j

F = Fλ

Fxi x
cos ␪zk

cos ␪x i
Fz k

z
Fig. 2.34
Since the magnitude of l is equal to unity, we must have
y
2 2 2
cos θx 1 cos θy 1 cos θz 5 1 (2.24)

When we are given the rectangular components Fx, Fy, and Fz of a force N(x2, y2, z2)
F, we can find the magnitude F of the force by
d y = y2 – y1
F
F 5 2F 2x 1 F 2y 1 F 2z (2.18)
λ d z = z2 – z1 < 0
and the direction cosines of F are obtained from Eqs. (2.19). We have
M(x1, y1, z1) d x = x2 – x1
Fx Fy Fz
cos θx 5 cos θy 5 cos θz 5 (2.25)
F F F O x

When a force F is defined in three-dimensional space by its magnitude F

and two points M and N on its line of action [Sec. 2.4B], we can obtain its

rectangular components by first expressing the vector MN joining points M z
and N in terms of its components dx, dy, and dz (Fig. 2.35): Fig. 2.35

MN 5 dxi 1 dyj 1 dzk (2.26)

We next determine the unit vector l along the line of action of F by dividing

MN by its magnitude MN 5 d:

y
MN 1
l5 5 1dxi 1 dy j 1 dzk2 (2.27)
MN d

Recalling that F is equal to the product of F and l, we have

F
F 5 Fl 5 1dxi 1 dy j 1 dzk2 (2.28)
d

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 From this equation it follows [Sample Probs. 2.7 and 2.8] that the scalar
components of F are, respectively,

Fdx Fdy Fdz

Fx 5 Fy 5 Fz 5 (2.29)
d d d

Resultant of Forces in Space

When two or more forces act on a particle in three-dimensional space, we can
obtain the rectangular components of their resultant R by adding the corre-
sponding components of the given forces algebraically [Sec. 2.4C]. We have

Rx 5 oFx Ry 5 oFy Rz 5 oFz (2.31)

We can then determine the magnitude and direction of R from relations simi-
lar to Eqs. (2.18) and (2.25) [Sample Prob. 2.8].

Equilibrium of a Particle
A particle is said to be in equilibrium when the resultant of all the forces
acting on it is zero [Sec. 2.3A]. The particle remains at rest (if originally at
rest) or moves with constant speed in a straight line (if originally in motion)
[Sec. 2.3B].

Free-Body Diagram
To solve a problem involving a particle in equilibrium, first draw a free-body
diagram of the particle showing all of the forces acting on it [Sec. 2.3C]. If
only three coplanar forces act on the particle, you can draw a force triangle
to express that the particle is in equilibrium. Using graphical methods of
trigonometry, you can solve this triangle for no more than two unknowns
[Sample Prob. 2.4]. If more than three coplanar forces are involved, you
should use the equations of equilibrium:
oFx 5 0 oFy 5 0 (2.15)
These equations can be solved for no more than two unknowns [Sample
Prob. 2.6].

Equilibrium in Space
When a particle is in equilibrium in three-dimensional space [Sec. 2.5], use
the three equations of equilibrium:
oFx 5 0 oFy 5 0 oFz 5 0 (2.34)
These equations can be solved for no more than three unknowns [Sample
Prob. 2.9].

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