UNIT I:

Criteria of Good Research

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should
be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
UNIT III
Data
While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher
should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary.
The primary data are those which are collected for the first time, and thus happen to be
original in character.
The secondary data, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which
have already been passed through the statistical process.
The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he would be using (thus collecting) for
his study and accordingly he will have to select one or the other method of data collection.
The methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ since primary data are to be
originally collected, while in case of secondary data the nature of data collection work is merely
that of compilation.
Primary data

Primary data can be collected in course of doing experiments or descriptive research by doing
experiments. There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and
descriptive researches. Important ones are:
a) observation method,
b) interview method,
c) through questionnaires,
d) through schedules

a) Observation Method
The observation method is the most commonly used method in studies relating to behavioural
sciences. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection, when it
serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subject to
checks on validity and reliability.
 Structured (descriptive) and unstructured (explorative) observation:
In case the observation is characterised by a careful definition of the units to be observed, style
of recording the observed information, conditions of observation and the selection of data of is
called as structured observation. But when observation is to take place without these
characteristics is termed as unstructured observation.
 Participant, Non participant and disguised observation:
If the observer observes by making himself, as a respondent that he is observing is called as the
participant observation. But when the observer observes as a detached with the participation
what others feel, is termed as non-participant observation.
 Controlled and uncontrolled observation:
If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled
observation, but when observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans,
involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed controlled observation.
b) Interview Method
 Personal interviews:
 Telephonic interview
C) Questionnaire Method
Advantages of using Primary data:
1. The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.
2. There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).
3. If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study period.
Disadvantages of using Primary data (for reluctant/ uninterested investigators):
1. The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data collection-
 deciding why, what, how, when to collect
 getting the data collected (personally or through others)
 getting funding and dealing with funding agencies
 ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.)
2. Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard-
 all desired data is obtained accurately, and in the format it is required in there is no fake/
cooked up data
 unnecessary/ useless data has not been included
3.Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies
d) Schedules
This method is similar to questionnaire method, this method is done with the purpose. The
method help in avoiding misunderstanding of question by respondents
Secondary data
Researcher can obtain secondary data from various sources. Secondary data may be either be
published data or unpublished data.
Publication data’s are available in different sources:
 Publication of government
 Technical and trade journals
 Report of various businesses, bank etc
 Public records
 Statistical or historical documents.
Advantages of using Secondary data:
1. The data’s already there- no hassles of data collection
2. It is less expensive
3. The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (“I didn’t do it”)
Disadvantages of using Secondary data:
1. The investigator cannot decide what is collected (if specific data about something is
required, for instance).
2. One can only hope that the data is of good quality
3. Obtaining additional data (or even clarification) about something is not possible (most
often)

Hypothesis
Hypothesis simply means a mere assumption or some supposition to be proved or disproved.
Assumption based on curiosity or an idea about a situation, or relationship that we do not
know. Hypotheses is a basis inquiry.
Definition by Grinnell (1988)
Hypothesis is written in such a way that it can be proven or disproven by valid and reliable data.
Definition by Bailey (1978)
A hypothesis is a proposition in testable form and predicts a particular relationship between
two or more variables. If a researcher thinks that a relationship exists, he should first state it as
a hypothesis and then test the hypothesis in the field.
Testing a hypothesis is crucial to ensure the verification of the research outcome.

Figure 7.1 : Process of hypothesis testing Adapted from Ranjit Kumar Research Methodology.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
A Hypothesis must be Capable of Verification
A Hypothesis must be Related to the Existing Body of Knowledge
A Hypothesis Needs to be Precise, Simple and Specific
A Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts

A hypothesis has several functions:

(a) Enhance the objectivity and purpose of a research work;
(b) Provide a research with focus and tells a researcher the specific scope of a research problem
to investigate;
(c) Help a researcher in prioritising data collection, hence providing focus on the study; and
(d) Enable the formulation of theory for a researcher to specifically conclude what is true and
what is not.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
 Null hypothesis
 Alternate hypothesis
Null hypothesis

The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship (or difference)

between variables and that any relationship found will be a change relationship,
not a true one.

For example, a null hypothesis might state:

There is no difference in the opinion of male and female respondents.

Alternate hypothesis states that there is relationship (or difference) between

variables.

For example, alternate hypothesis might state:

There is difference in the opinion of male and female respondents.
Sources of Error in Measurement
Measurement should be precise in an ideal research study. As such the researcher must be
aware about the sources of error in measurement. The following are the possible sources of
error in measurement.
(a) Respondent: At times the respondent may not express strong negative feelings.
For instance if a question like ‘Are you satisfied with current job’ to an employee. Many
employee will answer ‘yes’. If really employee is not satisfied also due to job security negative
feedback is avoided by employee. Therefore it is an measurement error.
(b) Situation: Situational factors may also come in the way of correct measurement. Any
condition which places a strain on interview can have serious effects on the interviewer-
respondent rapport.
For instance, if someone else is present, he can distort responses by joining in or merely by
being present. If the respondent feels that anonymity is not assured, he may be reluctant to
express certain feelings.
(c) Measurer: The interviewer may also a reason for measurement error. His Careless
behaviour, style and looks may discourage certain replies from respondents. Errors may also
creep in because of incorrect coding, faulty tabulation and/or statistical calculations,
particularly in the data-analysis stage.
(d) Instrument: Error may arise because of the defective measuring instrument. The use of
complex words, poor printing, inadequate space for replies, response choice omissions, etc. are
a few things that make the measuring instrument defective and may result in measurement
errors. Another type of instrument deficiency is the poor sampling of the universe of items of
concern.
Researcher must know that correct measurement depends on successfully meeting all of the
problems listed above. He must, to the extent possible, try to eliminate, neutralize or otherwise
deal with all the possible sources of error so that the final results may not be contaminated.