Johnny Issa, Ph.D.

, MBA
 Chapter 4:
Differential Relations for a Fluid Particle

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Motivation. In analyzing fluid motion, we might take one of two paths:

(1) seeking an estimate of gross effects (mass flow, induced force, energy
change) over a finite region or control volume (Chapter 3)

(2) seeking the point-by-point details of a flow pattern by analyzing an

infinitesimal region of the flow.

This chapter treats the second in our trio of techniques for analyzing fluid
motion, small-scale, or differential, analysis.

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The Acceleration Field of a Fluid

The cartesian vector form of a velocity field which varies in space and time:

Knowledge of the velocity vector field is nearly equivalent to solving a

fluid-flow problem.
To write Newton’s second law for an infinitesimal fluid system, we need
to calculate the acceleration vector field a of the flow. The total time
derivative of the velocity vector:

Each scalar component (u, v, w) is a function of the four variables (x, y, z, t),
use the chain rule to obtain each scalar time derivative.

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The total derivative of u may thus be written in the compact form

with u = dx/dt , v = dy/dt, w = dz/dt.

The total acceleration:

The term is called the local acceleration, which vanishes if the flow
is steady.
The three terms in parentheses are called the convective acceleration, which
arises when the particle moves through regions of spatially varying velocity,
as in a nozzle or diffuser.

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Note our use of the compact dot product involving V and the gradient
operator :

The total time derivative—substantial or derivative-concept may be applied

to any variable, e.g., the pressure:

The operator d/dt is sometimes assigned a special symbol such as D/Dt.

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The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation

Figure below an infinitesimal fixed control volume (dx, dy, dz),
The appropriate mass-conservation relation to use here is

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The mass-flow terms occur on all six faces, as follows:

Replacing back into previous equation:

This is the conservation of mass for an infinitesimal control volume. It is

often called the equation of continuity

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The flow may be either steady or unsteady, viscous or frictionless,
compressible or incompressible. The vector-gradient operator

The last three terms of previous equation are equivalent to the divergence of
the vector ρV

That the compact form of the continuity relation is

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Cylindrical Polar Coordinates
The most common alternative to the cartesian system is the cylindrical polar
coordinate system,. An arbitrary point P is defined by a distance z along the
axis, a radial distance r from the axis, and a rotation angle θ about the axis.

The general continuity equation in cylindrical polar coordinates is thus

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Steady Compressible Flow

If the flow is steady,

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Incompressible Flow

A special case which affords great simplification is incompressible flow,

where the density changes are negligible. Then regardless of
whether the flow is steady or unsteady; Therefore:

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When is a given flow approximately incompressible?
The commonly accepted limit is

where Ma = V/a is the dimensionless Mach number of the flow and a is the
speed of sound of a fluid.

Example: For air at standard conditions, a flow can thus be considered

incompressible if the velocity is less than about 100 m/s

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The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum

We use the same elemental control volume, for which the appropriate form
of the linear-momentum relation is

The element is so small

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The momentum fluxes occur on all six faces, three inlets and three outlets:

Introduce these terms we get:

A simplification occurs if we split up the term in brackets as follows:

The term in brackets on the right-hand side is seen to be the equation of

continuity, which vanishes identically. The term in parentheses on the
right-hand side is to be the total acceleration of a particle.
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The total acceleration is:

Thus

The net force on the control volume are of two types, body forces and
surface forces. Body forces are due to external fields (gravity, magnetism,
electric potential) which act upon the entire mass within the element. The
only body force we will consider is gravity:

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The surface forces are due to the stresses on the sides of the control surface
are the sum of hydrostatic pressure plus viscous stresses

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It is not these stresses but their gradients, or differences, which cause a net
force on the differential control surface.

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The net surface force in the x direction is given by:

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In exact manner

where the viscous force has a total of nine terms:

In divergence form

where

is the viscous-stress tensor acting on the element.

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The basic differential momentum equation for an infinitesimal element

The component equations:

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Inviscid Flow: Euler’s Equation

The simplest assumption is frictionless flow

This is Euler’s equation for inviscid flow.

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Newtonian Fluid: Navier-Stokes Equations
For a newtonian fluid, incompressible, three-dimensional viscous flow

These are the Navier-Stokes equations.

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 The Differential Equation of Energy

The appropriate integral relation for the fixed control volume is

The general differential energy equation

Where is the viscous-dissipation

This equation is valid for a newtonian fluid under very general conditions of
unsteady, compressible, viscous, heat-conducting flow.

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It is customary to make the following approximations:

Energy equation then takes the simpler form

Where

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Boundary Conditions for the Basic Equations

First, for a solid, impermeable wall, there is no slip and no temperature

jump in a viscous heat-conducting fluid

Second, at any inlet or outlet section of the flow, the complete distribution
of velocity, pressure, and temperature must be known for all time

Inlet or outlet:

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Inviscid-Flow Approximations

Inviscid flow the viscosity µ = 0. The momentum equation reduces to

This is the Euler’s equation

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The Stream Function

The stream-function idea works only if the continuity equation can be
reduced to two terms. In general, we have four terms:

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The most common application is incompressible flow in the xy plane

This equation is satisfied identically if a function ψ(x, y) is defined

such that

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Geometric Interpretation of ψ
Lines of constant ψ are streamlines of the flow. The definition of a
streamline in two-dimensional flow is

or

Therefore

Thus the change in ψ is zero along a streamline, or

ψ=const along a streamline

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Incompressible Axisymmetric Flow
The flow is three-dimensional (υr, υz) but with no circumferential variations,

For incompressible flow

Which can be rewritten as

This has the form

the form of an incompressible axisymmetric stream function ψ(r, z)

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Vorticity and Irrotationality

The assumption of zero fluid angular velocity, or irrotationality, is a very
useful simplification.

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We define the angular velocity ωz about the z axis as the average rate of
counterclockwise turning of the two lines

The vector ω= iω x + jω y + kω z is thus one-half the curl of the velocity

vector

Many flows have negligible or zero vorticity and are called irrotational

curl V=0
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 Some Illustrative Incompressible Viscous Flows

Couette Flow between a Fixed and a Moving Plate
Consider two-dimensional incompressible plane viscous flow between
parallel plates a distance 2h apart. Assume that the plates are very wide and very
long, so that the flow is essentially axial, u 0 but υ = w = 0. The upper plate
moves at velocity V but there is no pressure gradient. Neglect gravity effects
from the continuity equation:

Thus there is a single nonzero axial-velocity component which varies only

across the channel. The flow is said to be fully developed. the x-component of
the Navier-Stokes momentum equation

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The momentum equation simply reduces to

No-slip condition at the upper and lower plates:

Therefore the solution for this case (a), flow between plates with a moving
upper wall, is

This is Couette flow

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Flow due to Pressure Gradient between Two Fixed Plate
Consider two-dimensional incompressible plane viscous flow between
parallel plates a distance 2h apart. Assume that the plates are very wide and very
long, so that the flow is essentially axial, u 0 but υ= w = 0.

Both plates are fixed (V = 0), but the pressure varies in the x direction υ= w = 0,
the continuity equation leads to the same conclusion as before, namely, that u =
u(y) only. The x-momentum equation

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Since υ= w = 0 and gravity is neglected, the y- and z-momentum equations lead
to

The solution is:

No-slip condition at each wall:

Thus the solution to flow in a channel due to pressure gradient, is

The flow forms a Poiseuille. The maximum velocity at the centerline y=0;

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Flow between Long Concentric Cylinders
Consider a fluid of constant (ρ, µ) between two concentric cylinders. There
is no axial motion or end effect υz = = 0. Let the inner cylinder rotate at
angular velocity Ωi. The outer cylinder is fixed. There is circular symmetry,
so the velocity does not vary with θ and varies only with r.

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The continuity equation is:

υθ does not vary with θ. υr =0 at both the inner and outer cylinders, it follows that
υr = 0 everywhere and the motion can only be purely circumferential, υθ= υθ (r).
The θ-momentum equation:

All terms are zero except the last. Therefore

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