Sanchoz Soil Chem Adv Notes

S IL
CHEMISTRY
…. with more examples & questions for quick revision
Prepared by: Mr. Makame Kh. H. Sancho

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“There is a lot more to soil than meets the eye”

M KH. H. SANCHO Lessons notes for Advanced level
SOIL CHEMISTRY
OBJECTIVES OF THE TOPIC:
After studying this topic, you will be able to:

♠ explain the meaning and significance of soil colloids.
♠ describe the properties of soil colloids.
♠ explain the mechanism of ion exchange in a soil.
♠ describe cation exchange capacity of a soil sample.
♠ calculate the percentage base saturation of the soil sample.
♠ explain the concept of soil reaction,
(i.e. the soil pH; the acidity and alkalinity of soil) and the significance of soil pH.
♠ describe the organic and inorganic causes of soil acidity.
♠ explain the meaning and significance of liming.
♠ describe the beneficial effects of liming and detrimental effects of over liming.
♠ explain the similarities and differences between fertilizers and manures.
♠ mention the commonly used N, P, and K fertilizers.
♠ classify straight and mixed fertilizers.
Proudly prepared by: M Kh. H. Sancho, Dark-room – Zanzibar
INTRODUCTION:
Soils are dynamic, forming continuously over a long period of time. Soil types differ,
depending on the parent materials from which they came and from the surrounding
environment. There are many components which determine a soil type such as pH, nutrient
level, and organic content. Soils vary greatly in their chemical and physical properties which
depend on their age and on the conditions (parent material, climate, topography and
vegetation) under which they were formed.
One the most important components of the soil are the pH. The pH of the soil can be
modified by adding different chemicals and it indicates how acid or alkaline the soil is. The
range between 5.5 and 7.5 is favorable for two reasons. It allows sufficient microorganisms
to break down organic matter and it is also the best range for nutrient availability.
Each year the soil undergoes a series of cycles in which materials are added and then taken
away. Organic matter and nutrients, in various forms are constantly being added to the soil.
Nutrients are the minerals required by plant to survive. It is very important that plant receive
all the required nutrients. The most important nutrients are called macronutrients. Nutrients
that are essential, but only needed in small quantities are called micronutrients Organic
matter is simply dead decaying matter from a living source. It prevents nutrients from being
lost from the soil by binding these nutrients. Therefore, the best soil for crop production will
have high organic content.
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SOIL DEFINITION
Soil: Is a natural body synthesized into profile form, from parent material acted upon by
climate and organism and modified by relief over a considerable period ago.
Soil: Is the upper (top layer) most part of the earth’s crust which weathered from parent
rocks and supports the life of living organisms (i.e. plants and animals).
Parent materials are bed rocks, plants and animals.
Soil chemistry is the study of the chemical characteristics of soil.

Soil chemistry is the study of various chemical nutrients present in the soil and their
influence on the properties of the soil such as alkalinity or acidity.
Soil chemistry is affected by mineral composition, organic matter, and
environmental factors.
The importance of soil

* Soil is important for the foundations of engineering structures, sewage disposal, gardens
* Soil provides mineral nutrients which is necessary for the plant growth.
* For industrial purposes such as poetry, tile and brick industries.
SOIL PROFILE
If a vertical section is cut in the soil and examined, it will be seen that it consists of several
horizontal layers in succession down to relatively hard material underneath, the bed rock.
The individual layers are termed as horizons while the entire vertical section is the soil
profile. The horizons in the soil profile have characteristic physical and chemical properties.
Each soil is characterized by its horizons.
A layer of dark, fertile humus made of rotting plants lies at the soil’s surface. Underneath,
the topsoil contains plant roots, and plant and animal remains that bacteria and fungi are
helping to rot down. The subsoil contains fewer plant and animal remains but have plenty of
minerals washed down from the layers above. Below are rock fragments:
The horizons are not formed due to the simple deposition of transported materials,
one upon the other but they are the results of definite soil forming processes.
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SOIL FORMATION
Soil formation: Is the process by which soil is formed from parent rock by weathering
process. The nature of the soil will be governed by the constitution of the parent
rock, relief and the microbial population. The maturity of soil will depend on the
time factor. Such variations in the factors of soil formation result in the development
of different kinds of soils. Thus, a system of soil classification is needed to
distinguish different soils and to indicate their relative suitability for agronomic,
industrial, and other purposes.
Weathering: Is the process of breakdown and transformation of rocks and minerals under
natural conditions. Or
Weathering: Is the physical and chemical disintegration or decomposition of rocks and
minerals at/or near the earth’s surface by atmospheric agents.
The mechanical disintegration of rocks and minerals is termed physical weathering while
the decomposition is known as chemical weathering. Although it is customary to distinguish
between the two kinds of weathering, they are simultaneous and inter – related in nature.
For instance, disintegration exposes (represents) more surface area of material and hence,
speeds up chemical weathering, while chemical reactions frequently produce new minerals
whose development helps to disturb rock mechanically. However, in certain regions,
conditions might be more favourable for one than the other kind of weathering.
Processes of weathering
The processes involved in weathering can be grouped as
 Physical weathering
 Chemical weathering and
 Biological weathering.
Factors influencing the soil formation

Soils that form the thin outer covering of the earth have directly or indirectly developed
from the mineral constituents of rocks. Soil formation is essentially a function of climate,
organisms, relief, and parent material and time as expressed in the equation;
S = f (C, O, R, P, T)
Whereas, S = a soil property
f = dependent upon or is a function
C = Climate: It has two components temperature and rainfall. Temperature affects the
velocity of chemical reactions which approximately doubles for every 10oC
rise. It influences the organic matter decomposition and other microbiological
activities in the soil.
* The minimum and maximum temperatures are generally 0oC and 40oC,
respectively. Rainfall varies from less than 250mm to over 2500mm per
annum.
* In East Africa, temperature and rainfall are strongly influenced by altitude. The
altitude varies from sea level to about 6000metres. High altitude areas tend to
have more rain while low areas can have very small to very high rainfall.
* The intensity of weathering is generally proportional to temperature and
rainfall. While temperature increases the rate of weathering and rainfall tends
to increase the rate of washing out of various products of weathering.

O = Organisms: Vegetation, microorganisms and animals, including man, greatly influence
the formation of a soil. Microorganisms decompose organic matter releasing
organic and inorganic acids which brings about chemical weathering.
Burrowing animals such as rodents, earthworms, ants and termites, when
present in large numbers, are important in soil formation.
R = Relief/Topography: is general appearance of landscape. Relief largely determines
drainage conditions and ground water level in the soil. In temperature regions
the slopes which face the sun have more well developed soils than the slope in
shade.
P = Parent material: Is the initial state of the soil system as it represents the weathered rock
materials from which the soil develops. The kind of soil that develops depends
in part upon the kind of parent rocks and parent materials which influence the
physical and chemical properties of the resulting soil.
T = Time: the maturity of a soil is determined by the time factor. The length of time
required for a soil to develop horizons depends upon many inter-related
factors such as climate, nature of the parent material, organisms and relief.
COMPONENTS OF THE SOIL
Soil is made up of the following components:

(i) Organic matter
(ii) Inorganic matter
(iii) Soil water
(iv) Soil air
Air Water
25% 25%
Mineral
matter 45%
Organic matter
5%
INORGANIC MATTER
It is the component of the soil which is made up of minerals from the parent rocks. It
consists of 5 % of the total volume of the soil minerals that consist of macronutrients and
micronutrients.
Importance of soil inorganic matter
1) It provides nutrients in a soil for plant growth.
2) It maintains soil colour.
3) It causes chemical weathering.
4) It maintains soil pH.
5) It maintains soil moisture.

ORGANIC MATTER
The organic matter fraction of soils comes from the decomposition of animal or plant
products. Decomposition of this organic matter by microbial activity releases nutrients for
the growth of other plants. The organic matter content of a soil depends on the rates of
organic matter addition and decomposition.
Soil micro-organisms are the primary agents responsible for the decomposition of organic
matter such as plant residues. The decomposition rate of organic materials depends on how
favourable the soil environment is for microbial activity. Higher decomposition rates occur
where there are warm, moist conditions, good aeration, favourable ratio of nutrients, a pH
near neutral and freedom from toxic compounds
Importance of soil organic matter

1) It adds nutrients in the soil for plant growth.
2) It provides food substances for soil organisms.
3) It helps in improving soil structure.
4) It maintains soil water holding capacity.
SOIL WATER
Soil water comes from rain or irrigation and its amount in the soil depends upon the amount
added and amount lost by evaporation, transpiration and drainage. The percentage by weight
of water in the soil can be calculated as follow:
weight of water
age by weight of water
weight of fresh soil
Importance of soil water

1) It helps for regulating temperature of the soil.
2) It helps for dissolving and transferring nutrients.
3) It helps for controlling chemical reactions.
4) It provides media for chemical weathering.
5) It helps for maintaining soil pH.
6) It activates soil organism
7) It act as a solvent
8) It helps to maintain soil pH and turgidity
SOIL AIR
It is the component of the soil which constitutes different gases occupied in pore space in a
soil. It consists of 25 % of the total volume of soil. The soil air occupies pore spaces not
filled up by water. Soil air is not continuous and its composition is not uniform throughout
the soil.
The content and composition of soil air is determined to a large extent by the relationships
between soil air and water.
Importance of soil air

1) It provides oxygen for respiration of soil organisms.
2) It provides nitrogen for nitrogen fixation.

SOIL COLLOIDS
The term “colloid” originates from the Greek words kola, which means glue, and edos,
which means form.
Soil colloids: Are minute particles of both organic and inorganic matter found in a soil.
Soil colloid: Is a substance which when apparently dissolved, cannot pass through a
membrane.
A simple suspension is two phase system

 Dispersed phase, the phase forming particle
 Dispersion medium, the medium in which particles are distributed
** Particles less than 0.001 mm size possess colloidal properties and are known as soil
colloids
** The colloidal state refers to a two-phase system in which one material in a very finely
divided state is dispersed through second phase.
The particles forming the dispersed phase are called colloidal. Their sizes are
variable but not accepted range is from 10 Å = 10 – 8cm to 1µ = 104 Å = 10 – 4 cm.
Classification of Soil colloids

Two types, inorganic and organic colloids, are important in soils.
** In-organic or mineral colloids are exclusively clay minerals and hydrous oxide of iron
and aluminium.
** Organic colloids include humus particles. Organic colloids may make up an

appreciable portion of the total soil colloids.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SOIL COLLOIDS
1. Colloids store nutrients that might be leached & release those ions in response to soil pH
2. It act as a source of a plant nutrients (it hold nutrients due to its charge)
3. It determine the fertility of a soil
4. It is the most active portion of the soil (It provide surface area for chemical reaction)
5. It promote formation of the soil structure
6. Increase moist of the soil
7. It helps in a ground water protection

PROPERTIES OF SOIL COLLOIDS
1. Size: The most important common property of inorganic and organic colloids is their
extremely small size. They are too small to be seen with an ordinary light
microscope. Only with an electron microscope they can be seen. Most are smaller
than 2 micrometers in diameter.
2. Surface area: Because of their small size, all soil colloids expose a large external surface
per unit mass. The external surface area of 1 g of colloidal clay is at least 1000
times that of 1 g of coarse sand.
3. Surface charges: Soil colloidal surfaces, both external and internal characteristically
carry negative and/or positive charges. For most soil colloids, electro negative
charges predominate.
4. Cohesion: Cohesion is the phenomenon of sticking together of colloidal particles that are
of similar nature. Cohesion indicates the tendency of clay particles to fuse
together. This tendency is primarily due to the attraction of the clay particles
for the water molecules held between them.
5. Adhesion: Adhesion refers to the phenomenon of colloidal particles sticking (glue) to

other substances. It is the sticking of colloida1 materials to the surface of any
other body or substance with which it comes in contact.
6. Swelling and shrinkage: Some clay (soil colloids) swell when wet and shrink when dry.
Because of swelling, such soil is likely to close up and become much more
impermeable than one dominated by kaolinite, chlorite, or fine grained micas.
7. Dispersion and flocculation: As long as the colloidal particles remain charged, they
repel each other and the suspension remains stable. If on any account they lose
their charge, or if the magnitude of the charge is reduced, the particles come
together, form flocs or loose aggregates, and settle out. This phenomenon of
coalescence and formation of flocs is known as flocculation. The reverse
process of the breaking up of flocs into individual particles is known as
deflocculating or dispersion.
8. Brownian movement: When a suspension of colloidal particles is examined under a

microscope the particles seem to oscillate. The oscillation is due to the
collision of colloidal particles or molecules with those of the liquid in which
they are suspended. Soil colloidal particles with those of water in which they
are suspended are always in a constant state of motion. The smaller the
particle, the more rapid is its movement.
9. Non permeability: Colloids, as opposed to crystalloid, are unable to pass through a semi-
permeable membrane. Even though the colloidal particles are extremely small,
they are bigger than molecules of crystalloid dissolved in water. The
membrane allows the passage of water and of the dissolved substance through
its pores, but retains the colloidal particles.

SOIL REACTION
Soil reaction: Is a degree of the acidity or alkalinity of the soils and is measured as pH.
pH is defined as the negative logarithm (base 10) of the activity of hydrogen ions (H+) in
solution.
It ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. A pH below 7 is acidic and above 7 is
basic.
The pH is measured in a suitable soil-water suspension with a pH meter. Sometimes,
KCl or CaCl2 is used in the place of water.
The optimum pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.5 For two reasons
(a) It allows sufficient microorganism to break down organic matter
(b) It is also the best range for nutrient availability
SIGNIFICANCE OF SOIL pH
Soil pH is important for the following reasons:

 Soil pH affects the availability of nutrients.
The pH of the soil solution is very important because soil solution carries in it
nutrients such as Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K), and Phosphorus (P) that plants need in
specific amounts to grow, and fight off diseases.
 Improve microbial activities.
Certain bacteria help plants obtain N by converting atmospheric Nitrogen into a form
of N that plants can use. These bacteria live in root nodules of legumes (like alfalfa
and soybeans) and function best when the pH of the plant they live in is growing in
soil within an acceptable pH range.
 Toxicity.
If the soil solution is too acidic plants cannot utilize N, P, K and other nutrients they
need. In acidic soils, plants are more likely to take up toxic metals and some plants
eventually die of toxicity (poisoning).
 The soil pH helps in selecting a suitable crop.
ACIDIC SOIL
+
Is one in which H ions are dominant in the soil solution as well as on the exchange sites.
There are two types of soil acidity, namely, active and potential acidity. The H+ ions in the
soil solution represent active acidity and those held on colloidal surfaces represent potential
acidity.
The two types of acidities are always in dynamic equilibrium

When the concentration of H+ ions in the soil solution is diluted by rain or irrigation water
more H+ moves from the soil surface to the soil solution in order to maintain equilibrium.
The reverse occurs when H+ ions are released in the soil from decomposing organic matter
or acid-forming fertilizers.
The potential acidity may also be due to the presence of Al3+ ions on the colloidal exchange
sites.

CAUSES OF SOIL ACIDITY (ORGANIC AND INORGANIC)
Acidity in soils comes from H+ and Al3+ ions in the soil solution and sorbed to soil surfaces.
While pH is the measure of H+ in solution, Al3+ is important in acid soils because between
pH 4 and 6, Al3+ reacts with water (H2O) forming AlOH2+, and Al(OH)2+, releasing extra H+
ions. Every Al3+ ion can create 3 H+ ions.
 Al3+ + H20 Al(OH)++ + H+
 Al(OH)++ + H2O Al(OH)2+ + H+
 Al(OH)2 + H20
+
Al(OH)3 + H+
Many other processes contribute to the formation of acid soils including:

 Rainfall:
Acid soils are most often found in areas of high rainfall. Excess rainfall leaches base
cation from the soil, increasing the percentage of Al3+ and H+ relative to other cations.
Additionally, rainwater has a slightly acidic pH of 5.7 due to a reaction with CO 2 in the
atmosphere that forms carbonic acid.
Soil acidity occurs naturally in higher rainfall areas and can vary according to the
landscape geology, clay mineralogy, soil texture and buffering capacity. Soil
acidification is a natural process, accelerated by some agricultural practices
 Fertilizer use:
Ammonium (NH4+) fertilizers react in the soil in a process called nitrification to form
nitrate (NO3-), and in the process release H+ ions.
 Plant root activity:

Plants take up nutrients in the form of ions (NO3-, NH4+, Ca2+, etc.), and often, they take
up more cations than anions. However plants must maintain a neutral charge in their
roots. In order to compensate for the extra positive charge, they will release H+ ions
from the root. Some plants will also exude organic acids into the soil to acidify the zone
around their roots to help solubilize metal nutrients that are insoluble at neutral pH, such
as iron (Fe).
 Mine Spoil:
Severely acidic conditions can form in soils near mine spoils due to the oxidation of
pyrite.
 Nitrification:
Anhydrous ammonia placed in soil
Ammonium to Nitrate (oxidation of NH4+)
NH4+ + 2O2 NO3 – + H2O + 2 H+
 Organic matter decomposition

Organic acids ionized: R-COOH R-COO – + H+
Respiration: CO2 + H2O H2CO3 = ( H+ + HCO3 – )
 Thunder and Lightning: The electric spark produced tends to ionize nitrogen dioxide
which dissolves in rain drops to produce dilute nitric acid.

Harmful effects of soil acidity
(i) Causing harm to roots
(ii) Depressing the availability of essential nutrient elements such as P, K, Ca, and Mg
(iii) Increasing the solubility of iron, aluminium and manganese to toxic levels.
The activity of the soil microorganisms is depressed in an acid environment
MANAGEMENT OF ACIDIC SOIL
Liming: Is a method used to treat acid in area that has acid levels above normal levels.
Liming: Is the practice of adding any material to acid soils with the purpose of neutralizing
acidity and creating a favourable soil condition for plant growth and microbial
activity,
It is the application of calcium- and magnesium-rich materials to soil in various
forms. This neutralizes soil acidity and increases activity of soil bacteria.
Note: Not every calcium/magnesium salt can be used as liming material as the associated
anion plays an important role in affecting neutralization. Thus, SO42 – and Cl – of
calcium and magnesium are not suitable lime, since associated anion plays an
important role in affecting neutralization.
Lime is a basic chemical, its effect is to makes the soil more basic thus making acidic soils
neutral. Soils are limed to reduce the harmful effects of low pH (aluminum or
manganese toxicity) and to add calcium and magnesium to the soil.
The amount of lime needed to achieve a certain pH depends on:

1. The pH of the soil
2. The buffering capacity of the soil.
** The buffering capacity is related to the cation exchange capacity (CEC). The higher
the CEC, the more exchangeable acidity (hydrogen and aluminum) is held by the
soil colloids. As with CEC, buffering capacity increases with the amounts of clay and
organic matter in the soil. Soils with a high buffering capacity require larger amounts
of lime to increase the pH than soils with a lower buffering capacity.
A Ca++ ion from the lime replaces two H+ ions on the cation exchange complex. The
carbonate (CO3-) reacts with water to form bicarbonate (HCO3-). These react with H+ to
form H2O and CO2. The pH increases because the H+ concentration has been reduced.
H+
Soil Colloid + CaCO3 Soil Colloid-Ca++ + H2O + CO2
H+
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SIGNIFICANCE OF LIMING
1. It provide suitable pH to soil for proper function of microbes and other soil processes.
2. It increase activities of nitrogen fixing bacteria and other beneficial organisms
3. It influence distribution of plant root.
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF LIMING
 Crop yield improvement

 Nutrients availability
 Improved microbial activities
 Calcium and magnesium addition
 Acidity neutralization
THE DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS OF OVER LIMING
Lime needs to be added with caution. Over liming (adding more lime than needed)
will have adverse effects on plants growth due to:
1. Decreased uptake of several nutrient elements, especially iron, manganese and zinc
This immediately results in nutritional disorders.
2. Plant population and Soil micro flora too is affected and hence organic matter
decomposition ceases.
3. Effect on water use
4. Cost for money
ALKALINE SOIL
Is the type of soil that contain alkali salts such as Na2CO3, MgCO3 etc. It is caused by high
concentration of hydroxide ions, OH – in the soil solution.
Alkali soils contain appreciable amounts of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) which hydrolysis to
NaOH. They are often called “black alkali ” because the surface appears black or brown due
to the reaction of organic matter with sodium hydroxide which breaks down the organic
matter. The dispersed organic matter imparts the black colour to such soils.
MANAGEMENT OF ALKALINE SOIL

These are three general ways in which such soils are reclaimed or prevented from
further deterioration.
1. Acidification method: This is the process of acidifying the alkali soil with the acidic
forming fertilizers such as sulphate of ammonia.
2. Conversion (Use of proper chemical amendment): It is the method whereby some
chemicals like gypsum are added to the soil so as to covert salts like sodium carbonte to
leachable sodium sulphate.
3. Proper drainage: It is important to avoid local concentration of alkaline substances in the
soil solution as evaporation occur.

SOIL ION EXCHANGE
This is the process whereby ions are exchanged between soil colloid and soil solution.
If exchange include anions will be called anionic exchange and if include cations will be
called cationic exchange.
MECHANISM OF ION EXCHANGE IN A SOIL
There is a hierarchy (chain of command) in the process of cation exchange on colloids as

they differ in the strength of adsorption and their ability to replace one another.
* If one cation is added in large amounts it may replace another by the sheer force of it
numbers (mass action). This is largely what occurs with the addition of fertilizer.
* As the soil solution becomes more acidic, the other cations bound to colloids are pushed
into solution. This is caused by the ionization of hydroxyl groups on the surface of soil
colloids in what is describes as pH dependent charges.
As a result those cations can be made available to plants but also able to be leached
from the soil, possibly making the soil less fertile. Plants will excrete H+ to the soil and
to replace cations on the colloids, making the cations available to the plant.
CATION EXCHANGE
Is the property of soil colloid to adsorb, hold and release cation.

Is the exchange of a cation in the soil solution for another on the surface of a colloid.
Cation exchange is a phenomenon which is constantly going in soils and is of great
importance. Without some mechanism to temporarily hold cations in the soil, plants would
be unable to obtain sufficient quantities of the essential nutrients to grow. Without cation
exchange, the nutrients would simply be leached downward in the soil and lost. Cation
exchange plays a role in other soil processes as well.
Acidification is the process of exchanging basic cations, such as Ca+2, Mg+2, K+, and Na+,
for acidic cations, such as H+ and A1+3.
Importance of cation exchange

1. It holds ions that are important to plant growth
2. It prevents nutrients leaching downward the soil and become lost
CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY (CEC)

Is a quantitative measure of the ability of a soil to exchange cations with the soil solution
and is expressed in terms of cmols(+) kg-1 of soil.
Soil scientists, CEC have expressed in terms of meq/100 g of soil.
The unit cmol kg-1 is equal to meq/100g.
The cmol weight of the ions commonly found in soils is easily calculated by knowing:
1. the relative atomic mass of the ion divided by 100
2. the charge on the ion.
r (ion)
mol
harge
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is an expression of the 'amount' of cations held in the
soil. This is expressed as cmol of cations per kg of soil. When the CEC is combined
with the cmol weight of a particular cation, then the 'amount' of that cation can be
expressed on a weight basis.
Is the number of cation adsorption sites per unit weight of soil
Is the sum total of exchangeable cations that a soil can adsorb.
* CEC is also expressed in milliequivalents (meq) per 100 g of oven dry soil.
Equivalent weight = molecular or atomic wt (g)
valence or charges per formula
* Milliequivalent
1 meq wt. of CEC has 6.02 x 10 20 adsorption sites
SIGNIFICANCE OF CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY

1. It is used as a measure of fertility since increase in-organic matter, increase C.E.C
hence increase fertility
2. Is a measure of nutrient retention capacity
3. It protect ground water from cations contamination
PERCENTAGE BASE SATURATION OF A SOIL SAMPLE
Base saturation
Is the amount of positively charged ions, excluding hydrogen and aluminum ions that are
absorbed on the surface of soil particles. It is measured and reported as a percentage. Base
saturation is positively related to soil pH because a high base saturation value would
indicate that the exchange sites on a soil particle are dominated by non-acidic ions.
Base saturation is defined as the percentage of the soil exchange sites (CEC) occupied by
basic cations, such as potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and sodium (Na). The
base saturation percentages are calculated for each cation then added up to determine base
saturation.
PERCENT BASE SATURATION

Is the amount of positively charged ions that an absorbed on the surface of the soil particles
in percentage. A soil is said to be saturated if it contains maximum concentration of metallic
bases such as Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+ etc.
If calcium has a base saturation value of 50% and magnesium has a base saturation value
of 20% as shown above, then calcium occupies half o f the total exchange sites (CEC) and
magnesium occupies one-fifth of the total exchange sites (CEC). In our example where the
soil has a CEC of 5 meq/100g, 2.5 meq/100g of the CEC is occupied by calcium and
1.0 meq/100g of the CEC is occupied by magnesium. If all the exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg,
K and Na) total 100%, then there is no exchangeable acidity.
Formula;
um of exchangeable basic cations
Percentage base saturation
ation exchange capacity

Simply,
NOTE:
 EB include only basic cations and not acidic cations H+ & Al3+
 Σ(EB) and E are expressed in milliequivalent (meq) per 100g of dry soil.
 1 millmole = 1 milliequivalent ; 1eq = 1g
Example 1: The percentage base saturation of certain soil sample was fond to be 70% and
its exchangeable basic cations were 35meq. What is the cation exchange
capacity of this soil sample?
PBS = 70%
∑(EB) 35 meq
CEC = ?
Then,
... The cationic exchange capacity of the soil sample is 50 meq
Example 2: A certain soil contains the following cations, where all values are given in meq
in 100g of oven-dry soil Mg2+ = 20.0, Ca2+ = 38.0, Na+ = 4.0, K+ = 6.0, Mn2+ =
2.0, H+ = 24.0, and Al3+ = 8.0. If the cation exchange capacity of the soil is
96.0 meq in 100g of oven-dry soil. Calculate the percentage base saturation.
∑(EB) 20 + 38 + 4 + 6 + 2 = 70 meq/100g
CEC = 96 meq/100g
= 72.9%
... The pacentage base saturation (PBS) = 72.9%

Example 3: A soil sample of 20g was analyzed and found to contain 0.0015g of calcium.
What is the concentration of calcium in the soil sample in meq/100g of the
soil?
meq ≡ . 2g
0.0075meq ≡ . 5g
then,
. 75 meq ≡ 2 g
0.0375 meq ≡ g
... The concentration of calcium in soil sample is 0.0375meq/100g
Example 4: A soil sample has cation exchange capacity of 25meq/100g of soil. 10000mg
(10g) of the soil were shaken with 40cm3 of 0.1M HCl. After filtering and
washing, the soil filtrate and washing were titrated against NaOH solution,
32cm3 of NaOH were required for complete neutralization. Calculate the
percentage base saturation for the soil sample.
Equation; H+ + OH – H2O
Volume of HCl replace basic cations = 40cm3 – 32cm3 = 8cm3

Therefore, number moles of base, OH – = molarity x volume
= 0.1 x 8 x 10 – 3 = 0.0008 moles
In millmoles of base = 0.0008 x 1000 = 0.8millmoles = 0.8meq

Thus; g ≡ .8meq
g ≡ x
x = 8meq
∑(EB) 8meq
CEC = 25meq
From,
... The percentage base saturation of the soil sample = 32%

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES
Fertilizer: Is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin (other than
liming materials) that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients
essential to the growth of plants.
Fertilizers: Are substances that are either added to the soil or applied directly to plants to
enhance the growth and strength of plants.
Most importantly these substances are added to the soil to make the soil more
fertile in general so the plants that grow on it are strong and have all the major
nutrients.
Minerals elements are classified into two major groups:

Fertilizers typically provide, in varying proportions:
 Macronutrients: carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), phosphorus (P),

potassium (K), nitrogen (N), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca),
and sulfur (S);
CHOPKNMgCaS
 Micronutrients: iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu),
chlorine (Cl), molybdenum (Mo), cobalt (Co)
FeMaBoZiCuClMoCo
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL FERTILIZERS

Some most important mineral fertilizers are:
 Nitrogenous fertilizers
 Potassic fertilizers Straight fertilizer
 Phosphatic fertilizers
 Mixed fertilizer Compound fertilizer
STRAIGHT FERTILIZER
Straight fertilizer is a fertilizer that contribute single nutrient to the crops. Few examples of
straight fertilizer are urea, rock phosphate, ammonia, ammonium sulfate and muriate of
potash.
Straight fertilizer can be used straight to the crops but the nutrients that have been supply are
incomplete. This fertilizer usually mixed with other types of fertilizer to formulate mixed
fertilizer and compound fertilizer. The advantage of this straight fertilizer is because of the
low price compare to the other fertilizer. But, the effect to the crops is not good enough.
Types of Straight fertilizer

Straight fertilizer usually contributes one of these 3 main nutrients to the crops which are
Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K) or mostly known as NPK.

Nitrogenous Fertilizers
Is the one in which nitrogen acts as primary nutrient. There are mainly four nitrogenous
fertilizers. The main raw material used in making nitrogenous fertilizers is ammonia gas.
The common examples of nitrogenous fertilizers are

(a) Urea [CO(NH2)2],
(b). Ammonium sulphate [(NH4)2SO4],
(c). Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), and
(d). Sodium nitrate (NaNO3).
Suitable fertilizers are added according to the need of the soil. Lack of nitrogen will
cause the leaf become yellowish and consequence on the plant growth. Nitrogen
function is to supply foods to the plant during photosynthesis and enhance the plants
growth
Phosphatic fertilizers
Fertilizers containing phosphorus as primary nutrient are called phosphatic fertilizers.
Some of them are as follows.

(a) Calcium hydrogen phosphate or superphosphate [Ca (H2PO4)2]
(b) Ammonium hydrogen phosphate or ammorphos [(NH4)H2PO4]
(c) Ammonium phosphate [(NH4)3PO4].
Deficiency of phosphorus in the soil causes stunted growth in plants and greying of
leaves. It will act to enhance root growth and flowering.
Potassium fertilizers
This is the one which contain potassium as primary nutrient.
Some examples of potassium fertilizers are

(a) Potassium nitrate (KNO3),
(b) Potassium chloride (KCl)
(c) Potassium sulphate (K2SO4).
Deficiency of potassium causes the leaves to die out early. Lack of potassium will have
an effect on the plants protein synthesis. Potassium will support in plant chemical
process such as carbohydrate, sugar, protein, and enzyme synthesis for plant growth.
Mixed fertilizers (Compound / Complex)
A mixed fertilizer is the one which contain two or more primary macronutrient. The
advantages of mixed fertilizer are its contain a balance nutrients for plants and it will reduce
time and workmanship cost.
Therefore, mixed fertilizer usually popular among planters even the price is high compare to
straight fertilizer. Besides the NPK fertilizer, mixed NP, NK and PK was also formulated.
These includes: KNO3, (NH4)2PO4 e.t.c

THE CONCEPT OF FERTILIZER GRADES AND ANALYSIS
The assessment of the amount of a plant nutrient element, through fertilizer to be applied to
a given soil per hectare depends on the amount of nutrient required and the fertilizer
percentage available.
Example 1: Mr. Sancho a farmer from the Dark-room company was advised to improve the
nitrogen content in the soil by applying 180Kg of nitrogen. How much
kilograms of urea (CO(NH2)2) should apply in the soil in order to meet the
requirement?
Mass of nitrogen = 180Kg

Molecular weight of nitrogen in urea = 28g/mol
Molar mass of urea = 60g/mol
weight of nitrogen
Percentage of nitrogen in urea
weight of urea
28
Percentage of nitrogen in urea
Then, 100Kg of urea = 46.67 Kg of nitrogen

x Kg = 180 Kg of nitrogen
x = 385.7 Kg
Alternatively,
60Kg of urea = 28Kg of nitrogen
x Kg = 180 Kg of nitrogen
x = 385.7 Kg
... The weight of urea fertilizer required is 385.7 Kg
Question 1: sha’s school shamba soil requires 8 Kg of nitrogen per hectare so as to fulfill
plant requirements of nitrogen. Calculate the quantity (in Kg) of ammonium
sulphate [(NH4)2SO4] fertilizer required to meet this demand.
Question 2: A farm requires 120Kg of nitrogen. What weight of urea fertilizer 80% by
weight needs to be applied to the soil to meet the demands? Show clearly how
you obtain your correct answer. (Ans: 321Kg)
Question 3: Ali discovered a state of poor growth for his plants. He was advised to supply
160Kg of nitrogen for the improvement of the plant growth. What weight of
fertilizer of 80% by weight of Ca(NO3)2 did he has to buy to meet the
requirement? (Ans: 1171.25Kg)

METHODS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION
The choice of method of application of the nutrient carrier such that the highest possible
benefit is realized in agricultural practice is paramount important. Time consumed in the
application of the material, ease of handling of the material particularly if corrosive are also
of the crucial importance, since farmers with to apply fertilizers in the most convenient way.
The methods of fertilizer application are;
(i) Broadcasting: Is either the method in which fertilizer is applied uniformly over the soil
surface by hand or using machinery before planting the crop.
(ii) Top-dressing: Is the method in which fertilizer material is applied uniformly after crop
emergence.
(iii)Side-dressing: Is the method in which fertilizer applied beside the rows of crop.
(iv) Banding: Involves placing fertilizer either below or to the side of the seed or plant
(v) In-the-row application: Is carried out either by applying fertilizer together with the seed
from the same spout or applying fertilizer in the same row but with the seed placed
almost directly in the fertilizer.
(vi) Plough-sole application: The material is allowed to fall behind the plough bottom during
the ploughing operation.
Advantages of mineral fertilizers
(a) They are highly soluble

(b) They improve soil fertility by supplying plant nutrients in the soil
(c) They posses low moisture contents, this gives easy storage and transport
(d) They are relatively easy to apply
(e) They have a fixed elemental nutrients composition
Disadvantages of artificial (mineral) fertilizers
(a) They are more expensive

(b) They may contain ingredients that may be toxic to the skin or respiratory system
(c) They do not supply all kinds of plant nutrients.
(d) Chemical fertilizers can build up in the soil, causing long-term imbalances in soil pH
and fertility.
(e) Use of too much fertilizer can kill plants

MANURE (ORGANIC FERTILIZER)
Is the natural fertilizer formed by decomposition of organic substances added to the soil to
provide plant nutrients. It is called organic manure
Manure: These are organic residue which can increase soil fertility when supplied into it.
Manure: Refer to all organic material that may be added to the soil to supplement its
fertility for crop production. Manures are classified depending on their origin or
sources.
Manures are organic materials added to the soil to increase crop production. They are
biological in origin. The organic matter content is bulky and large and the nutrient content is
small.
CLASSIFICATION OF MANURES
1. Farmyard Manure (FYM):

This is the decomposed mixture of excreta (dung) and urine of farm animals
like cow, horse, goat and sheep along with leftover food. Farmyard manure
when collected in the field and stored in an exposed condition over a long
period shows considerable loss of ammonia which is a loss of fertilizing
value. To prevent this loss the dung is stored in pits which are about a metre
deep. Microbes play an important role in decomposing the dung and
converting it into manure
2. Compost:
This is the mixture of organic residue (such as dead animals and wood) with
soil and allowed to undergo biological decomposition. Compost (put together)
manure has higher nutritive value.
3. Green Manure:
Green manuring is the practice of growing and ploughing in, the green crops,
into the soil. It is a cheap and effective method that increases soil fertility as it
can supplement farmyard and other organic manures and is more cost effective.
Green manures add nitrogen and organic matter to the soil for improving crop
productivity. They also improve soil aeration and drainage conditions.
4. Vermicompost
Is a type of soil made by earthworms and microorganisms as they eat through
organic wastes.
The soil thus produced is mainly worm excreta and finely ground soil. Organic
wastes can be collected and fed on by worms so that the end product is the
broken down version of the original organic wastes. Besides providing
nutrients to plants, worms also upturn the soil thus making the soil lighter.
5. Poultry manure: meat from chickens and ducks

6. Banana trash in coffee plantations
7. Sisal waste from sisal estates
8. Filter cakes from sugar factories
Advantages of Manures:
(i) It regulate the soil pH and temperature
(ii) It encourages the activity of microbial organism
(iii) Almost all kinds of nutrients are available
(iv) It improves physical properties
(v) Reduce soil erosion
(vi) increase the moisture holding capacity of the soil
(vii) They are low cost nutrient carriers.
(viii) It does not leached easily following decomposition rate
(ix) It provide food and shelter for soil organisms
Disadvantages of Manures:
 Manures are bulky with low nutrient content.
 Being bulky and voluminous, they are inconvenient to handle, store and transport.
 Recovery of nutrients is slow due to upon decomposition
 Manure is not nutrient specific and hence it is not much useful when a particular
nutrient is required in the soil for a particular crop.
Similarities between manure and fertilizers

 Both supply same types of nutrients to plants
 Both work effectively and efficiency in solution form
Difference between fertilizers and manure

 Manure is cheaper while artificial fertilizer is cost.
 Manure has high moisture content while artificial fertilizer has low.
 Manure has not definite proportion of plant nutrient while artificial fertilizer has.
 Manure existing in nature, artificial fertilizer is industrial fertilizer
 Manure encourage microbial activities, artificial fertilizer does not
 Manure has variable decomposition, artificial fertilizer has constant decomposition
 Manure has low solubility, artificial fertilizer has high solubility rate
 Manure in it is excessive use no harmful produced, artificial fertilizer it is excessive use
harmful is produced.

SOIL FERTILITY AND PRODUCTIVITY
Soil fertility: Is that soil which provides nutrient elements in amounts that are adequate and
suitable for the plant growth and development.
Soil productivity: Is that soil which provide specific amount of plant products under
specific conditions. Is the capacity of the soil in its normal environment to
support plant growth.
* Fertility of the soil tends to vary from one place to another and this affects
agricultural production in such a way that more soil that is fertile has more
crop production and infertile soil has poor production.
Note: * Soil fertility greatly affects soil productivity; a fertile soil leads to high soil
productivity. However, soil productivity is affected or influenced by other
factors other than the soil fertility.
* For example, presence of weeds in a farm may lower the level of productivity
of the soil, even when the soil is fertile. Other factors like the farming method
used may also lower the productivity of the soil.
Factors affecting soil fertility and productivity
(i) Soil depth: The depth of the soil profile determines the extents of root development.
Deep soils increase the volume through which the roots can spread and they have a
greater water and plant nutrient supply potential.
(ii) Soil pH: Correct soil pH is important since different crops grow well under different soil
pH. The soil with moderate acidity supports a wide range of plant species. However, if
there is extreme acidity the plant growth inhibited since soil become toxic, also too
much alkalinity leads to poor plant growth.
(iii) Presence of soil colloid: These are extremely minute particle of the soil which help in
the retaining some nutrients and water that can be released gradually into the soil
solution for plant use. Without colloids, soil would lose soluble nutrients through
leaching to poor plant growth.
(iv) Availability of mineral plant nutrients: These are the chemical elements used in the
synthesis of organic molecules in the plant growth which can be obtained by different
ways such as fertilizer usage.
(v) Soil structure: Affects temperature, moisture status, and aeration in soils. Structure can
be altered by physical and chemical manipulations. For example, by cultivation,
manuring, and liming.
(vi) Soil moisture: Water helps in transportation of essential elements to cells and removes
waste products of the life process, but water requirement vary in plants.
(vii) Presence of soil organisms: These are important in the decomposition of organic
matter and nitrogen fixation in the soil.

CAUSES OF LOSS IN SOIL FERTILITY
Soil fertility may be lost through many ways; others are through natural processes while
others are because of human activities.
The ways through which soil fertility may be lost are as follow:
(a) By flooding: Plant nutrients are carried away from the soil by the moving water
(b) Leaching: This washes down the necessary nutrients in solution from the top soil which
make the soil to become more acidic and hence toxic.
(c) Monoculture: Is the growing of the same crop in the same area continuously. This makes
nutrients to be used up without replacement and the soil structure can be destroyed
rendering the soil to be unstable.
(d) Over – cultivation: Is the practice of growing one type of crop on a piece of land for a
long time, since it leads to the depletion of the soil nutrient.
(e) Soil capping: The soil is covered (capped) with the impervious material, which prevents
the penetration of rainwater into the soil and leads to surface run-off.
(f) Burning of vegetation: When vegetation is burned, organic matter is destroyed. This
affects the activities of micro-organisms such as nitrogen fixation and decomposition of
organic matter. Accumulation of the resulting as also causes imbalance of nutrients in
the soil.
(g) Soil erosion: Is the wearing away, and removal of the soil from one place and its
deposition at another through the forces of moving water and blowing winds. It results
in the loss of loss organic and plant nutrients.
(h) Change in soil pH: Inappropriate use of fertilizers may change the soil pH. Change in
pH affects the activity of the soil microorganisms and the availability of some nutrients.
This in turn affects the fertility of the soil.
(i) Overgrazing: Is the keeping of large number of animals in a small area than can be
supported.
(j) Soil pollution: Due to excessive use of pesticides and artificial fertilizers, dumping of
harmful wastes in the soil and acidic rain that make the soil toxic, structure less and
hence unproductive.
(k) Deforestation:
Methods used to manage loss of plant nutrients from the soil

(i) Crop rotation: Is the practice of growing different crops on the same field at different
times in orderly sequence.
(ii) Mixed cropping or intercropping: Is the practice where different crop species are grown
simultaneously on the same piece of land.
(iii) Planting windbreakers: Windbreakers are trees and tall grasses planted in strips to
reduce the speed and intensity of wind. This in turn reduce soil erosion
(iv) Mulching: Is the covering of the bare soil layer of organic matter such as straw, grasses,
and leaves. Mulching also helps to conserve soil moisture.
(v) Use of manure
(vi) Agro-forestry: Is the planting of trees together with growing of agricultural crops.
(vii) Good harvesting practices: This aim at restoring fertility of the soil after harvesting
(viii) Controlled grazing: Keeping the right number of animals on a piece of land prevents
overgrazing.

A FERTILE SOIL IS NOT NECESSARILY PRODUCTIVE
this means that fertile soil itself is not sufficient for production, that is not only fertile soil
can facilitate production; also, other agronomic practices (include all good farming
methods, such as crop rotation, cover crop, mulching and green manuring) must be done to
effect production.
Fertile soil may not be productive due to the following:

(a) Climate of the area which includes rainfall and temperature
(b) The type of crop grown; crops are specific to soils
(c) Soil structure, if the poor structure low production
(d) Pests and diseases; productive and fertile soil is free from pests and diseases.
(e) Technology employed
(f) Soil texture
(g) Weeding
(h) Terracing: Is an embankment (guard or wall) of stone or suitable material made across
the slope for the purpose of controlling run off.
Us m ’s:
(a) Nitrification: biological oxidation of ammonium to nitrate

(b) Nitrogen fixation: It refers to the transformation of elemental nitrogen into chemically
bound or combine forms. Or,
Is conversion of elemental nitrogen to organic combinations by microbial activities or to
inorganic forms as in the ammonia manufacturing process.
(c) Denitrification: Is the conditions whereby elemental nitrogen is formed from nitrates
and nitrites. This results in the volatilization loss of nitrogen from the soil.
(d) Immobilization: Is the conversion of mineral nitrogen by the microorganisms or by
plants into organic nitrogen.
(e) Mineralization: Is the conversion of organic nitrogenous compounds into inorganic
forms.
(f) Nitrifying bacteria: Autotrophic bacteria capable of oxidizing ammonium to nitrite and
nitrite to nitrate.
THE END OF THE TOPIC
Proudly prepared by: Makame Kh. H. Sancho

0773542465 / 0714789590.
Dark – Room,
September, 2016

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
FOR ACSEE AND OTHER COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS
SECTION A:
1. (i) Group the following plants nutrients into macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients:
S, Zn, Mo, N, Cl, P, Co, K and Ca
(ii) Give one function of each of the following essential plant nutrients:
(a) N (b) P
(iii) State four methods of application of fertilizer
(iv) What are the four advantages of using manures in the farm?
(v) Calculate the percentage composition of nitrogen in ammonium sulphate fertilizer
2. (a) (i) What are the natural causes of soil acidity?

(ii) What cations prevail in acidic soils?
(b) (i) On treatment with calcium hydroxide the soil pH was raised from 5 to 7.
What can you say about the properties of calcium hydroxide?
(ii) What effects can the alkalinity of the soil have on the availability of
nutrients?
(iii) Is it sensible to add lime to a field, which has received an application of
ammonium sulphate fertilizer? Explain
(c) With reference to pH, solubility and any other factors, list the main properties of
the following fertilizers used in our country:
(i) Ammonium sulphate
(ii) Super phosphate
(iii) Urea
3. (a) Name and briefly discuss

(i) One method that may be used to control low soil pH
(ii) Two methods that may be used to control high soil pH.
(b) Why does addition of certain calcium salts, (such as calcium carbonate)
increases the pH of acidic soils, while the addition of others (such as gypsum,
CaSO4) does not?
(c) The nitrogen cycle keeps the nitrogen content in the atmosphere balanced.
Discuss how this is done with reference to:
(i) Nitrogen fixation
(ii) Mineralization
(iii) Immobilization
(iv) Denitrification

PAST PAPERS - QUESTIONS

NECTA – ACSEE
SECTION B:
1. (b) (i) Define cation exchange capacity of a soil sample
(ii) Briefly explain how cation exchange capacity of a soil sample is measured.
(c) A certain soil contains the following cations in meq/100g of oven-dry soil:
Na+ = 2.00; K+ = 3.00; Mg2+ = 10.00; Ca2+ = 15.00; Al3+ = 4.00 and H+ = 5.00.
Calculate the
(i) percentage base saturation
(ii) quantity in grams of sodium present in 100g of oven - dry soil.
(d) A certain soil has been identified to have a pH < 5. Identify two major ions which
prevail in this soil and two compounds which can be used to raise the pH of this
soil. (NECTA: Qn. 8; P2, 2016)
2. (a) Briefly explain six advantages and four disadvantages of using manures
(b) (i) Differentiate immobilization from ammonification.
(ii) Describe how farm manure should be handled and stored.
(c) A certain soil requires 80Kg N per hectare so as fulfill plant requirements of
nitrogen. Calculate in kilogram the quantity of ammonium sulphate fertilizer
required to meet this demand. (NECTA: Qn. 8; P2, 2014)
3. (a) Describe the negative effects of the following practices on soil:

(i) Overliming
(ii) Repeated irrigation
(iii) Excessive use of ammonium sulphate
(b) Comment on each of the following statements:
(i) Not all calcium and magnesium containing can be used liming materials.
(ii) Aluminium contributes to soil acidity
(iii) Ion exchange in the soil system is a reversible process.
(c) A certain soil contains the following ions in meq/100g of oven dry soil:
Ca2+ = 10.00; Mg2+ = 5.00; Na+ = 0.50; Mn2+ = 5.00; Al3+ = 2.00; H+ = 12.00; and
K+ = 1.50. If the cation exchange capacity (c.e.c) of the soil is 24meq/100g of
oven dry soil, calculate the
(i) percentage of base saturation
(ii) quantity in grams of Ca2+ present in 100g of oven dry soil.
(NECTA: Qn. 12; P2, 2013)
4. (a) Briefly explain the following terms:

(i) Green manure
(ii) Farm yard manure
(iii) Compost manure
(iv) Organic fertilizers
(v) Artificial fertilizers
(b) The exchangeable hydrogen from 5.0g of oven dry soil was neutralized with
10cm3 of 0.1M NaOH. If the total c.e.c. of the soil was 25meq/100g of soil,
calculate the
(i) percentage of base saturation of the soil sample.
(ii) concentration of the H+ ions in (meq) in 75g of the oven dry soil.
(c) Comment on the nature of the soil at (b)(i) above.
(d) A soil sample of 20g was analysed and found to contain 0.0015g of Ca. What is
the concentration of calcium in the soil in milliequivalent per 100g of soil?
(NECTA: Qn. 6; P2, 2012)
5. (a) Define the following terms:

(i) Cation exchange capacity (C.E.S)
(ii) Percentage base saturation (P.B.S)
(iii) Fertilizer grade
(iv) Soil structure
(v) Mineralization
(b) A certain soil sample taken from a farm needed 4.55meq of base per 100g of soil
to change its pH from 5.5 to 7.0. If one acre of furrow slice weighs
approximately 9.07 x105 kg, what mass of lime (CaCO3) would be needed to
neutralize that acre of soil?
(NECTA: Qn.5; P1, 1999)
6. (a) What are soil colloids?

(b) What role do colloids play in the soil?
(c) List down five fundamental properties of soil colloid.
(d) Give five major reasons to show why soil pH should be properly managed.
(e) Give five advantages of adding manure in the soil.
(f) List down three detrimental effects of excessive salt in the soil.
(NECTA: Qn. 6; P1, 1999)
7. (a) Define the following terms

(i) Salt affected soils
(ii) Base saturation
(iii) Cation exchange
(iv) Soil fertility
(v) Field capacity
(b) Explain how the following processes contribute to the changes in soil pH.
(i) Microbial activity (ii) Hydrolysis of aluminium ions
(iii) Leaching (iv) Irrigation
(c) A certain soil contains the following cations, where all values are given in meq in
100grams of oven – dried soil. Mg2+ = 20.0, Ca2+ = 38.0, Na+ = 4.0, K+ = 6.0,
Mn2+ = 2.0, H+ = 24.0 and Al3+ = 8.0. If the cation exchange capacity of the soil
is 96.0meq in 100g of oven – dried soil, calculate
(a) the percentage base saturation of this soil.
(b) the quantity of calcium in grams present in 100 grams of the oven – dried
soil. (NECTA: Qn. 5; P1, 1998)

(i) Soil reaction
(ii) Ion exchange
(iii) Flocculation
(iv) Lime requirement
(v) Salinisation
(b) (i) In what form is phosphorus absorbed by plant roots?
(ii) How is the absorption of phosphorus by plant roots affected by soil pH?
(iii) Name four functions of phosphorus in plants.
(iv) Give the names of two phosphorus – based synthetic fertilizers.
(v) What is a mixed fertilizer?
(c) Write in table form three (3) advantages and three disadvantages of synthetic
fertilizers. (NECTA: Qn. 6; P1, 1998)
9. (a) With the help of relevant chemical equations, show how the presence of iron in
the soil contributes to soil acidity.
(b) Give five major reasons to show why soil pH should be properly managed for
the maximum plant growth.
(c) List down five advantages of adding organic matter in the soil.
(d) Show diagrammatically how:
(i) Contact cation exchange (ii) Contact anion exchange
Occurs between a charged colloidal particle and a charged plant root hair.
(NECTA: Qn. 5; P1, 1997)

(i) Cation exchange capacity (ii) Soil reaction
(iii) Soil colloids (iv) Salt – affected soil.
(b) List down three detrimental effects of excessive salts in the soil.
(c) What are the five major beneficial effects of adding liming materials to the soil?
(d) Outline two detrimental effects of overliming the soil.
(NECTA: Qn. 6; P1, 1997)
11. (a) Briefly explain what is meant by each of the following:

(i) Soil fertility
(ii) Mixed fertilizer
(iii) Soil liming
(b) (i) What is cation exchange capacity of a soil?
(ii) A 20g soil ample was shaken with 40cm3 of 0.1M HCl solution. After
filtering and washing the soil, the filtrate and washings were titrated against
NaOH solution. If 24cm3 of 0.1M NaOH were required for complete
neutralization, calculate the percentage base saturation of the soil sample.
(The cation exchange capacity of the soil sample is 25meq per 100g of soil).
(NECTA: Qn. 5; P1, May, 1996)
12. (a) Briefly explain what is meant by:

(i) Plant micronutrients
(ii) Plant macronutrients
(iii) Soil texture
(b) What is the importance of each of the following elements in plant growth?
(i) Potassium
(ii) Phosphorus
(iii) Nitrogen
(c) A farmer was advised to supply 160Kg of N to his maize farm. Calculate the
mass of fertilizer (of 80% by mass Ca(NO3)2) which he has to buy to meet the
requirements. (NECTA: Qn. 6; P1, May, 1996)
13. (a) Briefly explain six features of a fertile soil.

(b) By using chemical equations, show how each of the following can be used to
remove soil acidity.
(i) Ca(OH)2
(ii) CaCO3
(c) 10.00cm3 of 0.1M NaOH was used to neutralize the exchangeable hydrogen of
5.00g sample of oven dry soil. If the total cationic exchange capacity of the soil
is 25meq/100g of soil. Calculate:
(i) The percentage base saturation of the soil sample.
(ii) The concentration of hydrogen ions (in meq) in 75g of the oven dry soil
above.
(d) Comment on the answer in c(i) above. (NECTA: Qn. 6; P1, July, 1996)
14. Comment on each of the following statements:

(a) Not all Calcium and/or magnesium
(b) Aluminium contributes to soil acidity.
(c) Ion exchange in the soil system is a reversible process.
(d) Active & potential soil acidities are in dynamic equilibrium.
(NECTA: Qn. 5; P1, 1995)
15. (a) What is the soil profile?

(b) Sketch and label the principal horizons of a hypothetical soil profile that is under
natural forest conditions.
(c) What effect does organic matter have on soil profile?
(d) Explain the chemical weathering processes that are responsible for soil
development.
(e) (i) What causes soils colour and how does the colour influence the soil
properties?
(ii) What information can be provided by soil colour?
(NECTA: Qn. 6; P1, 1995)
16. Write short notes on each of the following;

(a) Fertilizers
(b) Farmyard manure
(c) Green manure
(d) Composts
(e) The importance of soil texture and soil structure in crop production.
(NECTA: Qn. 5; P1, 1994)

17. (a) (i) Write short notes on the importance of “Organic matter”.
(ii) Write a short eassay on the maintenance of soil organic matter.
(b) (i) What do you understand by the term “soil colloids”?
(ii) What are the main sources of H3O+ and OH – ions present in the soil
solutions?
(iii) What is the importance of soil pH?
(iv) Briefly explain the colorimetric method of determining soil pH.
(NECTA: Qn. 6; P1, 1994)
18. (a) What is the meaning of

(i) Macronutrients?
(ii) Micronutrients?
(b) Mn, K, N, Co, and P are essential elements for plants growth. Categorise them
as macronutrients and micronutrients.
(c) Agnes discovered a state of poor growth for her plants. She was advised to
supply 160Kg of N for the improvement of the plant growth. What weight of
fertilizer of 80% by weight (Ca(NO3)2) did she have to buy to meet the
requirements? (NECTA: Qn. 5; P1, 1993)
19. (a) (i) What is soil fertility?

(ii) What are the features of a fertile soil?
(iii) Explain why a fertile soil is not necessarily productive.
(b) With reference to “proper farming practices”, mention any four farming
methods by which soil fertility can be maintained under natural conditions.
(c) With the aid of chemical equations, show how calcium carbonate and calcium
hydroxide can be used to remove acidity in soils. (NECTA: Qn. 6; P1, 1993)
20. (a) (i) Explain briefly how the cation exchange capacity can be determined in the
laboratory.
(ii) The percentage base saturation of a certain soil sample was found to be 70%
and its exchangeable basic cations were 35me. What was the cation exchange
capacity of this soil?
(b) (i) Explain briefly what causes soil colour.
(ii) Explain briefly the influence of soil colour on soil properties.
(iii) What useful information does a farmer derive from the knowledge of the
soil colour? (NECTA: Qn. 5; P1, 1992)
21. (a) (i) Differentiate between active and potential acidity

(ii) List and briefly explain three processes that contribute to the development of
acid soils.
(b) (i) List at least six (6) factors that should be considered when selecting
appropriate liming materials.
(ii) List four (4) undesirable conditions which are associated with soil acidity
that may be corrected by the application of lime.
(iii) List four (4) common liming materials. (NECTA: Qn. 6; P1, 1992)

22. (a) Define weathering of rocks and minerals
(b) Briefly discuss the role of climate and vegetation in soil formation
(NECTA: Qn. 5; P1, 1991)
23. (a) Briefly explain the role of Nitrogen in plant nutrition.

(b) Discuss how nitrogen cycle keeps the nitrogen constant balanced in the
atmosphere. Your discussion should be done in reference to:
(i) Nitrogen fixation (ii) Mineralization
(iii) Immobilisation (iv) Denitrification (NECTA: Qn. 6; P1, 1991)
24. (a) Define the following terms: (i) Anion exchange (ii) Cation exchange capacity
(c.e.c)
(iii) Fertilizer (iv) Liming (v) Infiltration
(b) The exchangeable hydrogen from 5.0g of oven dry soil was neutralized with
10cm3 of 0.1M NaOH. If the total c.e.c. of the soil was 25meq/100g of soil,
calculate the
(i) percentage of base saturation of the soil sample.
(ii) concentration of the H+ ions in (meq) in 75g of the oven dry soil.
(c) Comment on the nature of the soil at (b)(i) above. (NECTA: Qn. 5; P1, 1990)
25. (a) Mention four (4) advantages of each of the following farming practices.
(i) crop rotation (ii) mulching
(b) How do the following processes contribute to the changes in soil pH?
(i) Microbial activity (ii) Leaching
(c) Briefly describe the chemical weathering processes that are responsible for soil
development. (NECTA: Qn. 6; P1, 1990)
26. (a) Briefly explain the importance of each of the following to plant growth:
(i) Soil air (ii) Soil temperature (iii) Porosity (iv) Soil
water
(b) What is meant by liming? Using balanced chemical equation; explain the action
of each of the following liming material when added to an acidic soil.
(i) Calcium carbonate (ii) Calcium oxide
(ii) Calcium hydroxide (iv) Calcium silicate
(c) Calculate the amount of calcium carbonate required to lime an acidic soil that
requires 100g of calcium oxide for the same purpose.
(d) Water was added to 100g of soil to make a 200cm3 soil solution. If this soil
solution required 0.0074g of calcium hydroxide for neutralization, what is the pH
of this solution? (NECTA: Qn. 5; P1, 1989)

(i) Soil fertility
(ii) Soil productivity
(iii) Mixed fertilizer
(b) (i) What is an acid salt?
(ii) Briefly explain three causes of soil acidity
(iii) Explain the lowering of pH values in sandy soils after an application of
ammonium chloride.
(c) tate briefly how would use a “filed method” to classify the following types of
soils:
(i) Sandy
(ii) Clay
(iii) Loamy
(iv) Silt
(d) A soil sample of 30 grams was analysed and found to contain 0.0045g of
magnesium. Calculate the concentration of magnesium in 100grams of the soil
sample. (NECTA: Qn. 6; P1, 1989)
28. (a) Explain what is meant by:

(i) Plant micronutrients
(ii) Plant macronutrients
(b) Point out the role or effect of the following elements in plant growth
(i) Potassium
(ii) Iron
(iii) Nitrogen
(iv) Phosphorus
(c) Compare any four types of commercial fertilizers referring to %N, %potash,
solubility, effect on soil when used and the type of crops for which each is
applicable.
(d) A farm requires 120Kg of nitrogen. What weight of urea fertilizer (80% by wt
CO(NH2)2) needs to be applied to the soil to meet this demand? Show clearly how
you obtain your answer. (NECTA: Qn. 5; P1, 1988)
29. (a) Define the following terms as applied tosoils:

(i) cation exchange capacity
(ii) percentage base saturation
(iii) Salinity
(b) A soil sample has a cation exchange capacity of 25meq per 100g of soil.
20000mg of the soil were shaken with 40cm3 of 0.1M HCl. After filtering and
washing the soil, the filtrate of 0.1M NaOH were required for complete
neutralization. Calculate the percentage base saturation for the soil sample.
(c) A soil sample (20g) was analyzed and found to contain 0.0015g of calcium. What
is the concentration of calcium in the soil sample in milliequivalents per 100g
soil?
(NECTA: Qn. 5; P1, 1987)

0773542465 / 0714789590.
Dark – Room,
September, 2016

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
FROM AUTHOR
MR. SANCHO
This pamphlet is about soil chemistry, prepared for A-level students and has been written
according to the new syllabus issued by Ministry of education and vocational training of the
United Republic of Tanzania.
The study questions at the end of this pamphlet may be used in tests, in class discussion, in
revision or for homework. Many of these questions are designed to test understanding and
application rather than factual recall.
The order in which the pamphlet presented is not intended as ideal learning or teaching
sequence. Different teachers will wish to cover the material in different ways according to
the interest, ability and aptitude of their students but I have had to order mine.
Purposely, I congratulate all authors of the text books and other literatures that helped enrich
this work. I would like to give much thanks to all, whose invaluable suggestions and
contribution in the production of this pamphlet were never waned. I am also thank you for
taking your time to pass through my work.
Before closing, I wish to acknowledge the tolerance made by my wife Marisa and our
dearest daughter Shufaa M. Sancho (Lafinga) and dearest son Hassan M. Sancho which
has sustained me during the preparation of this pamphlet.
I hope you will find that this pamphlet builds on the strengths and serves students even
better. Any errors arising from this pamphlet are the sole responsibility of the author

0773542465 / 0714789590.
Dark – Room,
September, 2016

Sanchoz Soil Chem Adv Notes

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Sanchoz Soil Chem Adv Notes

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S IL

Prepared by: Mr. Makame Kh. H. Sancho

“There is a lot more to soil than meets the eye”

After studying this topic, you will be able to:

© zeyantosancho@gmail.com 0773 54 24 65 / 0714 78 9590

Soil chemistry is the study of the chemical characteristics of soil.

The importance of soil

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Factors influencing the soil formation

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COMPONENTS OF THE SOIL

Soil is made up of the following components:

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Importance of soil organic matter

Importance of soil water

Importance of soil air

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A simple suspension is two phase system

Classification of Soil colloids

** Organic colloids include humus particles. Organic colloids may make up an

SIGNIFICANCE OF SOIL COLLOIDS

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5. Adhesion: Adhesion refers to the phenomenon of colloidal particles sticking (glue) to

8. Brownian movement: When a suspension of colloidal particles is examined under a

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Soil pH is important for the following reasons:

The two types of acidities are always in dynamic equilibrium

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Many other processes contribute to the formation of acid soils including:

 Plant root activity:

 Organic matter decomposition

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MANAGEMENT OF ACIDIC SOIL

The amount of lime needed to achieve a certain pH depends on:

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BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF LIMING

 Crop yield improvement

THE DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS OF OVER LIMING

MANAGEMENT OF ALKALINE SOIL

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MECHANISM OF ION EXCHANGE IN A SOIL

There is a hierarchy (chain of command) in the process of cation exchange on colloids as

Is the property of soil colloid to adsorb, hold and release cation.

Importance of cation exchange

CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY (CEC)

SIGNIFICANCE OF CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY

PERCENTAGE BASE SATURATION OF A SOIL SAMPLE

PERCENT BASE SATURATION

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 1 millmole = 1 milliequivalent ; 1eq = 1g

... The cationic exchange capacity of the soil sample is 50 meq

... The pacentage base saturation (PBS) = 72.9%

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... The concentration of calcium in soil sample is 0.0375meq/100g

Volume of HCl replace basic cations = 40cm3 – 32cm3 = 8cm3

In millmoles of base = 0.0008 x 1000 = 0.8millmoles = 0.8meq

... The percentage base saturation of the soil sample = 32%

Minerals elements are classified into two major groups:

 Macronutrients: carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), phosphorus (P),

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL FERTILIZERS

 Mixed fertilizer Compound fertilizer

Types of Straight fertilizer