Electric Power Systems Research

Single-phase Fault Location in Microgrid with the Presence of Electric Vehicles

--Manuscript Draft--

Manuscript Number: EPSR-D-21-02992

Article Type: Research Paper

Keywords: Microgrid, Fault Location, Voltage, and Current Measuring, Distributed Generation,
Vehicle to Grid.

Corresponding Author: Mahmood Hosseini Aliabadi, Professor Assistant

Tehran, RAN, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF

First Author: Mohammad Daisy, Ph.D. candidate

Order of Authors: Mohammad Daisy, Ph.D. candidate

Mahmood Hosseini Aliabadi, Professor Assistant

Shahram Javadi, Associate Professor

Hasan Meyar Naimi, Assistant professor

Abstract: The most challenging problem in the protection of microgrids is integration of

distributed generations (DGs), which leads to bidirectional load flow and different fault
current levels. The fault location (FL) in the microgrids is based on the simultaneous
data of the two terminals. Because the data of all buses are transferred to the main
bus, this paper proposes a FL technique to calculate the fault distance and section in
alternative current microgrids in the island mode. The proposed method estimates the
single-phase FL in the microgrid, taking into account renewable energies and electric
vehicles (EVs) by distributed parameters line model (DPLM) and based on current and
voltage measuring at the beginning and end of each section. This method does not
require an EV model and DGs. Moreover, this method uses only less than half of the
cycle data to execute the algorithm. The performance of the proposed method has
been investigated with the help of a seven-bus microgrid in MATLAB software. In
addition, studies have been conducted on the impacts of line parameter uncertainty
and different DG operating conditions, various fault resistance (FR), FLs, and fault
inception angles (FIAs). The findings have shown that the suggested approach has
outstanding precision.

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Single-phase Fault Location in Microgrid with the Presence of Electric

Vehicles
Mohammad Daisy a, Mahmood Hosseini Aliabadi a,*, Shahram Javadi a,b,*, H. Meyar Naimi a
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
b
Intelligent Power System Research Center, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
* Corresponding authors: E-mail addresses mah.hosseini-aliabadi@iauctb.ac.ir (M. Hosseini Aliabadi), sh.javadi@iauctb.ac.ir (Sh. Javadi)

Abstract

The most challenging problem in the protection of microgrids is integration of distributed generations (DGs),
which leads to bidirectional load flow and different fault current levels. The fault location (FL) in the microgrids is
based on the simultaneous data of the two terminals. Because the data of all buses are transferred to the main bus, this
paper proposes a FL technique to calculate the fault distance and section in alternative current (AC) microgrids in the
island mode. The proposed method estimates the single-phase FL in the microgrid, taking into account renewable
energies and electric vehicles (EVs) by distributed parameters line model (DPLM) and based on current and voltage
measuring at the beginning and end of each section. This method does not require an EV model and DGs. Moreover,
this method uses only less than half of the cycle data to execute the algorithm. The performance of the proposed
method has been investigated with the help of a seven-bus microgrid in MATLAB software. In addition, studies have
been conducted on the impacts of line parameter uncertainty and different DG operating conditions, various
fault resistance (FR), FLs, and fault inception angles (FIAs). The findings have shown that the suggested approach
has outstanding precision.

Keywords: Microgrid, Fault Location, Voltage, and Current Measuring, Distributed Generation, Vehicle to Grid.

Introduction

Nowadays, renewable energy and EVs in distribution networks (DNs) and microgrids are increasing to reduce
carbon consumption and enhance grid efficiency. The integration of EVs with the DN creates new challenges for load
management and brings opportunities for saving and generation of electrical energy [1]. Furthermore, if any of these
vehicles accumulate in a DN, Vehicle to Grid (V2G) mode can be used to support and stabilize grid performance
during faults [2]. These benefits and applications include integration with renewable energy sources, reactive power
compensation, and voltage balance [3-6]. For example, Figs. 1 and 2 show the effect of the presence of an EV on the
Direct Current (DC) bus voltage and Photovoltaic (PV) power at the moment of the fault. As stated by these figures,
it can be seen that EVs can effectively control and improve the efficacy of the fault. According to the mentioned
explanations, it is very significant to study the effects of the presence and performance of EVs in future smart-grids
[7, 8].

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Fig. 1. DC bus voltage waveform (a) without the presence and (b) with the presence of an EV at the moment of the
fault occurred ]8[.

Fig. 2. PV production power (a) in the absence (b) and in the presence of an EV at the moment of the fault ]8[.

On the other hand, some faults may occur in grids that reduce reliability. A precise and automated FL technique is
necessary to identify the accurate, automated, and economic FL ]9[. The most challenging problem in protecting smart
grids and microgrids is integrating renewable energy sources and equipment such as EVs, etc., leading to bidirectional
load flow and different fault current levels in the grid-connected or island modes. The fault current component is
changeable and more potent depending on the source type than the nominal current. The mentioned issues will lead
to incorrect classification of faults or failure to recognize them. In addition, if the microgrid is in an island mode, the

2
fault current component of the energy sources may not reach the pickup level of the protective devices to fault
detection; therefore, the sensors must have a high sampling rate, and the communication system must be high-speed
and reliable. On the other hand, line parameters may change due to life and weather conditions. Consequently,
renewable energy, alterations in line parameters, and different fault conditions, including fault distances, FR, and
FIAs, should not jeopardize the FL method. In recent years, several faults location methods have been presented for
DNs, such as impedance-based methods ]10[, artificial intelligent methods ]11[, differential ]12[, and traveling waves
]13[ ]14[. Impedance-based methods estimate the location of the fault by calculating the fundamental frequency
components of voltage and current. FR, load, and FIA are all factors that may affect this technique. Furthermore, the
impedance-based method faces a multi-response problem in the DN ]15[. Another approach that can determine the
location of the fault at a higher speed if it has the correct data; is the method of using traveling waves. The principles
of these methods are based on calculating and measuring the time required for the wave movement from the location
of the fault locator to the FL. In this method, the correlation between the passing waves along the line that moves from
the FL to the sides of the line is investigated. The fault interval is specified using high-frequency current signals and
recorded voltage in one or two terminals. Nevertheless, these techniques have drawbacks as well, including the
requirement for an increased sample frequency, difficulties in differentiating among returning waves from the FL to
the line termination, and the presence of complicated formulations and operating structures. It is also important to note
that the precision of these techniques is influenced by the kind of fault, the voltage angle at the time of the fault, and
the FL ]16[. The next group is artificial intelligent methods. These methods first define an index or set of indexes with
unique behavior for each fault in each location. Some of these methods give the necessary training to the system for
different faults in different locations. Then the index is computed and compared to instructional information if a fault
occurs throughout the network. Thus, the type and location of the fault are determined. The big problem with these
methods is the need for a big and accurate data bank, which needs to be updated with the development of the grid or
grid change ]17[. Differential equation methods use line transition models in which disturbing harmonics are
introduced as identified signals in known harmonic-based methods. The differential method has disadvantages, such
as the need for a high-bandwidth communication link and the need for fast and accurate data synchronization.
Advanced telecommunication systems and data unification algorithms can solve these problems in smart grids and
microgrids ]12[. Some methods on this subject and their details are presented in Table 1.
In this paper, a new technique for calculating the fault distance and fault section in island mode microgrids with
renewable sources such as wind turbines, photovoltaic systems, and fuel cells is proposed. In this method, using the
data at the beginning and end of each section, the location of the fault is calculated. In addition, the presence of EVs
in grid injection mode (V2G) and its impact on this method has been evaluated. The responsiveness and precision of
the suggested approach to these alterations were examined because of the change in the line characteristics attributable
to various meteorological circumstances and line longevity. Furthermore, a DPLM has been utilized to improve the
precision of the suggested technique. This method is not sensitive to the presence of renewable sources, EVs, and
changes in their energy. The proposed method is evaluated in a seven-bus microgrid. The obtained results indicate the
acceptable and independent performance of various FRs, diverse FLs, different FIAs, and uncertainty in resource
output.

3
 The rest of the paper is organized as follows. The second part states the proposed method for identifying the fault
distance and the faulty section. The simulation results and comparison with other methods will be examined in the
third section. Finally, the fourth section shows the conclusion.

Table 1
Investigation of various methods in the field of FL in electrical energy DNs.
Reference ]17[ ]18[ ]19[ ]15[ ]20[ ]21[ ]22[ Proposed Method
Line model DPLM Short Short π DPLM DPLM DPLM DPLM
Unbalanced system √ - - √ √ √ √ √
Microgrid - - - - - - √ √
Presence of DGs - √ - √ - - √ √
Presence of EVs - - - - - - - √
line parameters uncertainty - - - - - - - √
DGs uncertainty - - - - - - - √

2. The Proposed Method

Due to the observability of microgrids, fault-locating methods that use data from both sides of the section can be
used. In this method, to analyze and locate transient and stable faults that occur in low and medium voltage grids in
less than a quarter of a cycle, the data recorded at the beginning and end of each section and the DPLM are used to
improve accuracy. In general, this method calculates the FL by equating the voltage equations on both sides of the
fault (to obtain the fault voltage) and getting the minimum value of the fault distance. Considering the importance and
innovation of the presence of EVs and their effect on the proposed method, first, the dynamic equations of EVs are
described.

2.1 Dynamic Modeling of EV Connected to the Smart Grid ]8[

Fig. 3 shows a model of an EV connected to a smart grid using a converter.

Fig. 3. EV connected to the smart grid.

Based on ]8[, after calculating the currents and using the Park transformation, the active power (P3φ) and reactive
power (Q3φ) that is transferred from the EV to the three-phase grid or from the grid to the vehicle (in d-q frame) can
be written as follows ]8[.

𝑃3𝜑 = 3⁄2 (𝐸𝑞 𝐼𝑞 + 𝐸𝑑 𝐼𝑑 ) (1)

𝑄3𝜑 = 3⁄2 (𝐸𝑞 𝐼𝑑 − 𝐸𝑑 𝐼𝑞 ) (2)

Where Id and Iq are the currents of the frame d-q and Ed and Eq are the grid voltages in the frame d-q, respectively.
Based on ]24 ,23[ in the rotating frame d-q, it can be assumed that Ed = 0, so (1) and (2) can be simplified as follows:

4
 𝑃3𝜑 = 3⁄2 𝐸𝑞 𝐼𝑞 (3)
𝑄3𝜑 = 3⁄2 𝐸𝑞 𝐼𝑑 (4)
In smart grids, controlling the input or output power of EVs is essential. Therefore, it is necessary to use a high-
performance power conversion algorithm. According to (4, 3), it is observed that active power (P) and reactive power
(Q) can be controlled with Id and Iq, respectively.

2.2 Distributed Parameter Line Model (DPLM)

The DPLM is considered as Fig. 4, in which z' and y' are presented in parallel admittance and series impedance,
respectively, with details related to the DPLM. DPLM relationships are fully described in ]25[.

Fig. 4. DPLM circuit model ]25[.

2.3 Fault Locating by Measuring the Currents and Voltages at the Beginning and End of Each Section

Fig. 5 shows the equivalent single-phase circuit of each DN section, taking into account the DPLM if a single-
phase to ground fault happens.

Fig. 5. Circuit model of a section of the DN with DPLM in the event of a single-phase to ground fault.

By writing KCL in node 1 in Fig. 5, we will have:

𝑖𝑎1 = 𝑖𝑐1 + 𝑖1 → 𝑖1 = 𝑖𝑎1 − 𝑖𝑐1 (5)

𝑐′
𝑑𝑣𝑎1
𝑖𝑐1 = 2
(6)
×𝑥
𝑑𝑡
The value of C '/ 2 is obtained from (7):

5
 𝑐′ 𝑐 𝛾𝑙
= tanh( ) (7)
2 2 2

Where:
γ: Propagation constant

l: line length

x: Fault distance from the beginning of the section

Va1 and Va2: Send and receive voltages, respectively

Ia1 and Ia2: Send and receive currents, respectively

Moreover, by writing KCL in node 5 of Fig. 5, we have the following equations:

𝑖2 = 𝑖𝑎2 + 𝑖𝑐4 (8)
𝑐́ 𝑑𝑣𝑎2 (9)
𝑖𝑐4 = (𝑙 − 𝑥)
2 𝑑𝑡
By replacing (6) in (5), we have:
𝑐́ 𝑑𝑣𝑎1
𝑖1 = 𝐼𝑎1 − ×𝑥 (10)
2 𝑑𝑡
In addition, by placing (9) in (8), we will have:
𝑐́ 𝑑𝑣𝑎2
𝑖2 = 𝐼𝑎2 + × (𝑙 − 𝑥) (11)
2 𝑑𝑡
By applying KVL in the left loop of Fig. 5, Eq. (12) is obtained:
𝑉𝑓𝑎 𝑉𝑎1 𝑟𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑏 𝑟𝑎𝑐 𝑖1 𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝑎𝑏 𝐿𝑎𝑐 𝑑 𝑖1
[𝑉𝑓𝑏 ] = [𝑉𝑏1 ] − [𝑟𝑏𝑎 𝑟𝑏𝑏 𝑟𝑏𝑐 ] [𝑖𝑏1 ] × 𝑥 − [𝐿𝑏𝑎 𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝑏𝑐 ] × 𝑥 × [𝑖𝑏1 ] (12)
𝑉𝑐1 𝑟𝑐𝑎 𝑟𝑐𝑏 𝑟𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑐1 𝐿𝑐𝑎 𝐿𝑐𝑏 𝐿𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑡 𝑖
𝑉𝑓𝑐 𝑐1

In addition, by applying KVL to the loop on the right part of Fig. 5, we will have:

𝑉𝑓𝑎 𝑉𝑎2 𝑟𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑏 𝑟𝑎𝑐 𝑖2 𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝑎𝑏 𝐿𝑎𝑐 𝑑 𝑖2

𝑉 𝑉 𝑟
[ 𝑓𝑏 ] = [ 𝑏2 ] − [ 𝑏𝑎 𝑟𝑏𝑏 𝑟𝑏𝑐 ] [𝑖𝑏2 ] × (𝑙 − 𝑥) − [𝐿𝑏𝑎 𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝑏𝑐 ] × (𝑙 − 𝑥) × [𝑖𝑏2 ] (13)
𝑉𝑐2 𝑟𝑐𝑎 𝑟𝑐𝑏 𝑟𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑐2 𝐿𝑐𝑎 𝐿𝑐𝑏 𝐿𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑡 𝑖
𝑉𝑓𝑐 𝑐2

By equating (12) and (13), we get (14):

𝑉𝑎1 𝑟𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑏 𝑟𝑎𝑐 𝑖1 𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝑎𝑏 𝐿𝑎𝑐 𝑑 𝑖1

𝑟
[𝑉𝑏1 ] − [ 𝑏𝑎 𝑟𝑏𝑏 𝑟𝑏𝑐 ] [𝑖𝑏1 ] × 𝑥 − [𝐿𝑏𝑎 𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝑏𝑐 ] × 𝑥 × [𝑖𝑏1 ]
𝑉𝑐1 𝑟𝑐𝑎 𝑟𝑐𝑏 𝑟𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑐1 𝐿𝑐𝑎 𝐿𝑐𝑏 𝐿𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑡 𝑖
𝑐1
𝑉𝑎2 𝑟𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑏 𝑟𝑎𝑐 𝑖2 𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝑎𝑏 𝐿𝑎𝑐 (14)
𝑑 𝑖2
= [𝑉𝑏2 ] − [𝑟𝑏𝑎 𝑟𝑏𝑏 𝑟𝑏𝑐 ] [𝑖𝑏2 ] × (𝑙 − 𝑥) − [𝐿𝑏𝑎 𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝑏𝑐 ] × (𝑙 − 𝑥) × [𝑖𝑏2 ]
𝑉𝑐2 𝑟𝑐𝑎 𝑟𝑐𝑏 𝑟𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑐2 𝐿𝑐𝑎 𝐿𝑐𝑏 𝐿𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑡 𝑖
𝑐2

Providing occurrence, a single-phase fault in a three-phase system, (15) is obtained:

𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖𝑐1
𝑉𝑎1 − 𝑟𝑎𝑎 𝑖1 𝑥 − 𝑟𝑎𝑏 𝑖𝑏1 𝑥 − 𝑟𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑐1 𝑥 − 𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑥. − 𝐿𝑎𝑏 𝑥. 𝑏1
− 𝐿𝑎𝑐 𝑥. = 𝑉𝑎2 − 𝑟𝑎𝑎 𝑖2 (𝑙 − 𝑥) −
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑖2 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖𝑐2 (15)
𝑟𝑎𝑏 𝑖𝑏2 (𝑙 − 𝑥) − 𝑟𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑐2 (𝑙 − 𝑥) − 𝐿𝑎𝑎 (𝑙 − 𝑥). − 𝐿𝑎𝑏 (𝑙 − 𝑥). 𝑏2
− 𝐿𝑎𝑐 (𝑙 − 𝑥).
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

By replacing (10) and (11) in (15), we will have:

6
 𝑐′
𝑑𝑣𝑎1
𝑐′ 𝑑 (𝑖𝑎1 − 2 . 𝑥)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑎1 𝑑𝑖𝑏1 𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝑎1 − 𝑟𝑎𝑎 (𝑖𝑎1 − 2 . 𝑥) . 𝑥 − 𝑟𝑎𝑏 𝑖𝑏1 𝑥 − 𝑟𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑐1 𝑥 − 𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑥. − 𝐿𝑎𝑏 𝑥. − 𝐿𝑎𝑐 𝑥. 𝑐1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑐′
𝑑𝑣𝑎2
= 𝑣𝑎2 − 𝑟𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑎2 + 2 . (𝑙 − 𝑥) . (𝑙 − 𝑥) − 𝑟𝑎𝑏 𝑖𝑏2 (𝑙 − 𝑥) − 𝑟𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑐2 (𝑙 − 𝑥) (16)
𝑑𝑡
( )
𝑐′
𝑑𝑣𝑎2
𝑑 (𝑖𝑎2 − 2 . (𝑙 − 𝑥))
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
− 𝐿𝑎𝑎 (𝑙 − 𝑥). − 𝐿𝑎𝑏 (𝑙 − 𝑥). 𝑏2 − 𝐿𝑎𝑐 (𝑙 − 𝑥). 𝑐2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
By simplifying the relation (16), we will have:
𝑐′ 𝑐′ 2
𝑑𝑣𝑎1 𝑑𝑖𝑎1 𝑑 𝑣𝑎1 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝑎1 − 𝑟𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑟𝑎𝑎 𝑥 . 2 2
− 𝑟𝑎𝑏 𝑖𝑏1 𝑥 − 𝑟𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑐1 𝑥 − 𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑥. 2 2
+ 𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑥 . − 𝐿𝑎𝑏 𝑥. 𝑏1 − 𝐿𝑎𝑐 𝑥. 𝑐1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑐′
𝑑𝑣𝑎2
= 𝑣𝑎2 − 𝑟𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑎2 (𝑙 − 𝑥) + 𝑟𝑎𝑎 (𝑙 − 𝑥)2 . 2 − 𝑟𝑎𝑏 𝑖𝑏2 (𝑙 − 𝑥) − 𝑟𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑐2 (𝑙 − 𝑥) − 𝐿𝑎𝑎 (𝑙
(17)
𝑑𝑡
𝑐′ 2
𝑑𝑖𝑎2 𝑑 𝑣𝑎2 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
− 𝑥). + 𝐿𝑎𝑎 (𝑙 − 𝑥)2 . 2 2 − 𝐿𝑎𝑏 (𝑙 − 𝑥). 𝑏2 − 𝐿𝑎𝑐 (𝑙 − 𝑥). 𝑐2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Eq. (17) is a quadratic equation that can be solved to discover the FL. This equation calculates different FLs for various
voltages and currents when a fault occurs. The number zero must be obtained by equating the voltages at the beginning
and end of the section and calculating the voltage at the fault point. Thus, the minimum value of x is the answer to the
proposed method. These calculations are performed using (18).

𝑓𝑚 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∑ 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑠𝑖 ) (18)

Where:
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑣𝑠 , 𝑖𝑠 , 𝑣𝑟 , 𝑖𝑟 , 𝑥

si=ith section

x: fault distance from the beginning of the section

𝑉𝑠 and 𝑉𝑟 : send and receive voltage, respectively

𝐼𝑠 and 𝐼𝑟 : Send and receive current, respectively

0 < 𝑥𝑖 < 𝑙 and l is selected as section lengths in the above cost function. si also varies between 1 and the total
number of sections (n). i is also the number of sections.

2.4 Flowchart of the Proposed Method (FPM)

In this method, first, the current and voltage data at the beginning and end of each section and the network topology
are received. Then, in the case of fault detection, for each section, for all x that changes from 0 to section length, all f
(xi, si) is calculated. In other words, different voltages and currents are recorded at the moment of the fault, for each

7
of which a FL is obtained. These calculations will continue until all sections are completed. Then, the acquired FLs
should be analyzed using (18) to get the actual FL in this step. If f (xi, si) for each section changes the sign and creates
the global minimum in that part, it represents the faulty section. Other sections do not change signs and are usually
ascending or descending. In addition, x, which represents the global minimum in the desired section, characterizes the
calculated fault distance in that section. Fig. 6 shows the FPM.

Fig. 6. Flowchart of the proposed method.

3. Simulation Results

3.1 The Under-Studied Microgrid

The evaluation of the proposed method has been evaluated by considering a microgrid with seven nodes. The
system frequency is 50 Hz, and the total length of this network is 12.6 km. The studied microgrid has resources such
as wind turbines, photovoltaic systems, fuel cells, and EVs. This grid has been investigated in MATLAB software for
single-phase faults and different FRs (0, 25, 50, and 100 Ω). Moreover, the sensitivity of this method in various FIAs
(36, 90, 180, and 270 degrees), the effect of changing line parameters, and uncertainty in sources have been evaluated.
Fig. 7 shows the microgrid under study.

8
 Wind Turbine

4 6 7

1
Main Grid

Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G)
3 5

Fuel Cell PV

Fig. 7. Single-line diagram of the under-studied microgrid.

 Characteristics of the Studied Wind Turbine

This model uses a 1.5 MW wind turbine connected to a 20 kV microgrid to export power to the grid. The
wind turbine consists of a doubly fed induction generator (DFIG), a wound rotor induction generator, and a PWM-
based AC/DC/AC IGBT converter modeled by voltage sources. The stator winding is connected directly to the
50 Hz grid. At the same time, the rotor is powered by AC/DC/AC converter with variable frequency. In this
model, the wind speed is constant at 15 m/s. The control system uses a torque controller to maintain speed in 1.2
p.u. The reactive power generated by the wind turbine is set at 0 MW. A 575 V/20 kV three-phase transformer is
used to connect the converter to the grid. Fig. 8 shows the active power in the studied wind turbine.

Fig. 8. Active power of wind turbine.

 Characteristics of the studied Fuel Cell

The system uses a 50 kW (1 p.u) fuel cell connected to the microgrid via an IGBT converter. The converter uses
hysteresis switching and controls the active power by manipulating of direct-axis current while keeping the reactive

9
power at 0. A 200 V/20 kV three-phase transformer is used to connect the converter to the grid. More information on
this fuel cell is shown in [26]. Fig. 9 shows the active power in the under-studied fuel cell.

Fig. 9. Active power of the fuel cell.

 Characteristics of the studied Photovoltaic System

The PV plant consists of four PV arrays that export a maximum of 100 kW with 1000 W/m2 of sun irradiance.
Each PV array is connected to a DC/DC converter. MPPTs are used to obtain the maximum possible power to change
the voltage at the PV array terminals. A 260 V/20 kV three-phase transformer is used to connect the converter to the
grid. Fig. 10 shows the active power of the under-studied photovoltaic system.

Fig. 10. Photovoltaic active power.

 Characteristics of the Under-studied Electric Vehicle

This model consists of twenty vehicles, and each vehicle has two batteries. The rated power and rated capacity of
each battery are 20 kW and 85 kWh, respectively, and the efficiency of this system is 90%. This system is designed
in (V2G) mode, and in case of fault, it uses the available power to balance the grid. A 600 V/20 kV three-phase
transformer is applied to link this system to the network. Fig. 11 shows the active power in the under-studied EV
model.

Fig. 11. Active power of EVs.

10
  Characteristics of Lines and Loads

Table 2
Characteristics of Length of lines.
Section 1-2 1-3 1-4 4-5 5-6 6-7
Length (km) 2/4 1/8 2/1 2/1 2/7 1/5

Table 3
Characteristics of line parameters.
[ C1 C0] (F/M) [ L1 L0] (H/M) [ R1 R0] (OHMS/M)
[1.3065E-11 4.355E-12] [8.8580E-07 2.6574E-06] [1.5370E-05 4.6120E-05]

Table 4
Load characteristics of each section.
Section 1-4 4-6 6-7

R=640 Ω R=640 Ω R=640 Ω

Load Characteristics L=1.52 H L=1.52 H L=1.52 H
3 phase 3 phase 3 phase

3.2 Evaluating performance of the proposed method

According to Fig. 12, by placing a single-phase fault with a distance of 0.9 km from the beginning of section 6-7
and FR of 20 Ω, the proposed algorithm is executed to find the distance and the main section of the fault. Figs. 13 and
14 show the voltage and current waveforms at the fault moment, respectively.

Fig. 12. Single line diagram of the location of the fault in Section 6-7.

Fig. 13. Fault voltage waveform in section 6-7 at a distance of 0.9 km from the initiation of the section with a FR of
20 Ω.

11
Fig. 14. Fault current waveform in section 6-7 at a distance of 0.9 km from the beginning of the section with a FR of
20 Ω.
After running this algorithm, for each section, a curve is obtained. Curves that are ascending or descending do not
show the correct answer of the faulty section. The main section of the fault is the curve that has a sign change and
shows at least a point of the global minimum. Fig. 15 shows the results of the implementation of the proposed
algorithm in all sections. It can be seen that only section 6-7 with a fault distance of 0.8819 km has a one-time change
of sign and a global minimum. Then, by placing another single-phase fault with a distance of 1.2 km from the
beginning of section 4-5 and FR of 20 Ω, the proposed algorithm is tested to find the fault distance and the main
section of the fault. Fig. 16 shows section 4-5 as the main section of the fault with a distance of 1.2346 km.

Fig. 15. Fault simulation results in section 6-7 with a distance of 0.9 km from the beginning of the section.

Fig. 16. Fault simulation results in section 4-5 with a distance of 1.2 km from the beginning of the section.

12
  Evaluate the Proposed Method in Different FLs
This part investigates six different locations with a FR of 20 Ω to apply the real fault and test the proposed
algorithm in different FLs. Eq. (19) has been utilized to determine the precision of the suggested approach.

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 − 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟% = | | × 100 (19)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

The results of these tests are shown in Fig. 17 and Table 5. Fig. 17 shows that different FLs do not affect the
performance and precision of the suggested approach. Moreover, according to Table 5, it is observed that the
maximum error of this method is 0.425% in section 1-2, and the minimum error is 0.006% in section 1-3. Thus, it has
been shown that the suggested technique is indifferent to the location of the faults.

Fig. 17. Findings of the suggested approach simulation in various FLs.

Table 5
Findings of the suggested approach simulation in various FLs.
Section Real Fault Location (km) Calculated Fault Location (km) Error%
1-2 1.2 1.1464 0.425
1-3 1.5 1.4992 0.006
1-4 0.6 0.6173 0.137
4-5 1.2 1.2346 0.274
4-6 0.3 0.3527 0.418
6-7 0.9 0.8819 0.143

 Evaluation of the Proposed Method with Different FR and FIAs

Factors that usually affect the accuracy of FL algorithms are FR and FIA. To investigate the effect of these factors
on the accuracy of the proposed method, according to Fig. 18, a single-phase fault to the ground in section 4-5 and at
a distance of 0.9 km from the beginning of the section with FIAs (36, 90, 180 and 270 degrees) and four different FR
(0, 25, 50 and 100 Ω) are simulated. The results of these tests are shown in Table 6. In addition, the calculated FL in
Section 4-5 under different conditions are also shown in Fig. 19. As a consequence of these findings, the suggested
method's effectiveness is not affected by variations in FIAs and FRs.

13
 Fig. 18. Single line diagram of section 4-5 at the moment the fault occurred.

Table 6
Different FR and FIAs in section 4-5.
Fault Inception Angle (degree)
Fault Resistance (Ω) (36) (90) (270) (180)
Error %
0 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
25 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
50 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
100 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14

Fig. 19. The calculated FL in Section 4-5 with different FRs and FIAs.

Fig. 20 shows the calculated locations in different faults and the error percentage of the proposed algorithm
associated with each location in Section 1-3. The minimum error of the proposed method in this Figure is related to
the FL of 1.5 km from the beginning of this section. The calculated location of this fault is 1.4992 km from the
beginning of the section, that the findings show that the suggested approach is robust to FIA, fault distance, and FR.

14
 Fig. 20. The suggested approach error in Section 1-3 with various fault distances, FRs, and FIAs.

 The Effect of Changing Line Parameters on the Precision of the Suggested Approach
Due to climate change and line life, line parameters change. These changes can affect the accuracy of fault locating
methods. In this part, the suggested approach precision is evaluated by varying the line parameters. Table 7 shows the
new values of the line parameters in the form of six scenarios. In the first and second scenarios, these parameters have
increased and decreased + 0.005% and -0.005%, respectively, compared to the initial values. In scenarios 3 to 6 these
changes are -0.01%, +0.01%, -0.1% and +0.1%, respectively. For this purpose, a single-phase fault with a distance of
1.2 km from the beginning of section 4-5 and FR of 20 Ω has been simulated. The locations calculated by the proposed
algorithm, taking into account the initial values of the line parameters, are 1.2346 km and in the first to sixth scenarios
are 1.2285, 1.408, 1.2224, 1.2471, 1.2025, and 1.1758 km, respectively. The results of these cases are shown in Table
8 and Fig. 21. According to these results, it can be seen that changes in line parameters cannot affect the accuracy of
this method.

Table 7
Different line parameters in the form of six scenarios.
Scenario [ R1 R0] (OHMS/M) [ L1 L0] (H/M) [ C1 C0] (F/M)
First [1.5447E-05 4.6351E-05] [8.9023E-07 2.6707E-06] [1.3130E-11 4.3768E-12]
Second [1.5293E-05 4.5889E-05] [8.8137E-07 2.6441E-06] [1.3000E-11 4.3332E-12]
Third [1.5524E-05 4.6581E-05] [8.9466E-07 2.6840E-06] [1.3196E-11 4.3986E-12]
Fourth [1.5216E-05 4.5659E-05] [8.7694E-07 2.6308E-06] [1.2934E-11 4.3115E-12]
Fifth [1.6907E-05 5.0732E-05] [9.7438E-07 2.9231E-06] [1.4372E-11 4.7905E-12]
Sixth [1.3833E-05 4.1508E-05] [7.9722E-07 2.3917E-06] [1.1759E-11 3.9195E-12]

Table 8
Suggested approach precision considering the change of line parameters.
Initial values of line The first The second The third The fourth The fifth The sixth
parameters scenario scenario scenario scenario scenario scenario
Error%
0.274 0.226 0.323 0.177 0.373 0.019 0.192
Calculated Fault Distance (km)
1.2346 1.2285 1.2408 1.2224 1.2471 1.2025 1.1758

15
 Fig. 21. Performance results of the suggested approach considering the change of line parameters.

 The Effect of Uncertainty in DGs on the Proposed Method

Large-scale integration of wind power generation, solar energy, etc., reduces the equivalent inertia of a power
system. On the other hand, the production of these resources can reach their minimum or maximum during the
day and night and in different weather conditions [27]. Due to the irregular, nonlinear and non-fixed
characteristics of these sources, fundamental challenges arise in regulating the frequency and power of the system
[28]. These changes can cause FL algorithms to face some problems. Therefore, it is crucial to check the
uncertainty in renewable sources and EVs. In this part, the effect of uncertainty on the proposed method is
investigated in three scenarios. Table 9 shows the new resource values. The results of these simulations are shown
in Table 10 and Fig. 22.

Table 9
Different scenarios of resource uncertainty.
Scenario Wind Turbine Photovoltaic Electric Vehicle Fuel Cell
First 3 MW 100 kW 400 kW 50 kW
Second 500 kW 300 kW 800 kW 50 kW
Third 1.5 MW 0 kW 1200 kW 0 kW

Table 10
Simulation results of resource uncertainty.
Calculated Fault Actual Fault Calculated Fault
Scenario Actual Fault Section Error%
Section Distance (Km) Distance (Km)
1 1-2 1-2 1.2 1.1464 0.42
2 6-7 6-7 0.9 1.8819 0.14
3 1-4 1-4 0.6 0.6173 0.13

Comparing Table 10 with Table 5, it is clear that the uncertainty in the production of resources does not affect the
accuracy of the proposed method. Fig. 22 shows the simulation results in three different scenarios. In the first scenario,

16
a single-phase fault to the ground is simulated in section 1-2 at a distance of 1.2 km from the beginning of the section.
After applying the proposed algorithm, section 1-2 is obtained as a calculated faulty section, and fault distance is
obtained 1.1464 km from the beginning of this section. In the second scenario, considering a single-phase fault to the
ground in section 6-7. At a distance of 0.9 km from the beginning of the section, the accuracy of this method against
the uncertainty of resources is investigated. By applying the proposed algorithm, section 6-7 is obtained as a calculated
faulty section, and fault distance is obtained 0.8198 km from the beginning of this section. Finally, in the third scenario,
by applying a single-phase fault to the ground in section 1-4 and a distance of 0.6 km from the beginning of the section,
the independence of the proposed method to the uncertainty of sources is tested. Furthermore, section 1-4 is obtained
as a calculated faulty section, and fault distance is obtained 0.6173 km from the beginning of this section. The results
obtained in this part show the independence of this method than the uncertainty of resource production.

Fig. 22. Performance of the proposed method in resource uncertainty scenarios.

3.3 Compare the Proposed Algorithm with Other Presented Methods

This paper focuses on calculating the fault distance and estimating the faulty section in island microgrids with the
presence of renewable sources and EVs. The maximum error of this method is 0.4%, which indicates the high precision
of the suggested approach. High speed and simplicity are other advantages of this method. In addition, insensitivity to
the presence of renewable sources, EVs, changing line parameters and resource production, different FIA, different
FLs, and resistance can also be mentioned as advantages of this method compared to other methods. This method has
high efficiency in different microgrid topologies. Table 11 shows the results of the comparison of the suggested
approach with other methods.

Table 11
Comparison of the proposed method and other presented methods in smart grids and microgrids.
Line Parameters Fault Section Fault Distance
Reference Line Model DGs Uncertainty Presence of EVs
Uncertainty estimation Error%
[29] DPLM - - - √ 8.5%
]15[ π - - - - 1.5
]30[ Short - - - √ unmentioned
]31[ π - - - √ unmentioned
]32[ π √ - - - 1.38
Proposed
DPLM √ √ √ √ 0.4
Method

17
4. Conclusion

This paper proposed a new method for determining the location of single-phase faults to ground in microgrids
based on the data recorded at the beginning and end of each section and the DPLM. In the proposed method, the
desired microgrid is first modeled in MATLAB software, and then the fault is simulated at several points with different
distances and in other sections. The voltage and current data recorded at the beginning and the end of each section are
called and saved online for each fault. Then, the collected data and based on the proposed algorithm, the faulty section,
and the fault distance are specified. This method is not sensitive to the presence of DGs and EVs. The simulation
results have proved the independence of this method against different FR, FLs, FIAs, change of line parameters, and
uncertainty of resource capacity. The maximum error of this method is 0.4%, which, compared to other methods,
indicates the high accuracy of proposed algorithm.

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19
Cover Letter

Cover Letter
Dear Editor in Chief and Respected Editors,
I am pleased to submit our manuscript entitled “Single-phase Fault Location in Microgrid
with the Presence of Electric Vehicles” for consideration by Electric Power Systems Research.
I confirm that this work is original, and it has not been published elsewhere nor is it currently
under consideration for publication elsewhere.
The proposed method estimates the single-phase fault location in the microgrid, taking into
account renewable energies and electric vehicles by distributed parameters line model and based
on current and voltage measuring at the beginning and end of each section. This method does not
require an EV model and DGs. Moreover, this method uses only less than half of the cycle data to
execute the algorithm. The performance of the proposed method has been investigated with the
help of a seven-bus microgrid in MATLAB software. In addition, studies have been conducted on
the impacts of line parameter uncertainty and different DG operating conditions, various
fault resistance, fault locations, and fault inception angles.
Thank you for your consideration of this manuscript and I am looking forward to receiving your
feedback which without a doubt improves our research.
Sincerely
Mahmood Hosseini Aliabadi
Associate Professor
Islamic AZAD University, Central Tehran Branch
Tehran, IRAN
Azad University, Tehran, Iran
Mah.Hosseini-Aliabadi@iauctb.ac.ir
Declaration of Interest Statement

Declaration of interests

☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered
as potential competing interests:
Highlights (for review)

Highlights:
 Estimation of fault distance and section in microgrid by one method.
 Investigating the presence of electric vehicles on the proposed method.
 Investigating uncertainties in DGs and line parameters.
 Distributed parameter line model is considered.
 Independent of different fault resistances, inception angles and locations.
Credit Author Statement

CRediT author statement

Mohammad Daisy: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Investigation; Methodology; Project
administration; Resources; Software; Writing - original draft. Orcid: 0000-0003-4066-826X.

Mahmood Hosseini Aliabadi: Supervision; Formal analysis; Validation; Writing - review & editing.

Shahram Javadi: Supervision; Validation; Writing - review & editing. Orcid: 0000-0002-5950-8592.

Hasan meyar naimi: Writing - review & editing.