Defining Communicative Competence: Competence can be described as the knowledge, ability or

capability while the word ‘communicative’ has the meaning of exchange or interaction.We can say
that communicative competence is nothing but a ‘competence to communicate’ that is, having the
ability that allows the person to communicate in order to fulfill communicative needs. defines the
term ‘communicative competence’ as both the knowledge of the linguistic and not linguistic rules of
communication and the skill to use such knowledge effectively and appropriately in real life
situations for the purpose of fulfilling.

Canale and Swain Model of Communicative Competence

Their model focuses on the interaction of grammatical competence and sociolinguistic
competence and they have maintained that:

There are rules of language use which would be useless without the rules of grammar. Their
model had highlighted the importance of grammar for effective communication.
For Canale and Swain, “the study of sociolinguistic competence is essential to the study of
communicative competence as is the study of grammatical competence.

The components of communicative competence:

● Grammatical competence: This competence includes knowledge of lexical items, rules

of morphology, syntax, grammar and phonology. Part of the communicative
competence represents the underlying system of the language and how to determine
and express accurately the literal meaning of the utterance.
● Sociolinguistic competence: is made up of sociocultural rules of language use. Is very
important in interpreting and producing utterances in social context. The knowledge of
social rules is essential for producing and understanding utterances that are appropriate to
the context in which language is used.
● Strategic competence: is made up of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies
that may be called into action to compensate for breakdowns in communication.
● Discourse competence: represents the ability to combine language structures and language
functions into a coherent and cohesive text.

Developing EFL learners’ Communicative Competence

Achieving such an aim depends on many factors related to teachers, syllabi, teaching situation,
environment and learners themselves as well. There are many learning strategies or activities that
are usually selected for enhancing language learning.These activities that enhance language
learning are usually communication-based activities and task-based activities. These activities
usually play a big role in developing communicative competence and enabling
communication skills in comparison to those strategies of imitations, memorization and
repetition drills that mainly concern about language and its structures rather than the use of that
language. A new trend in the last third of the last century was the emergence of the Communicative
Language Teaching Approach that recommends teaching English through communication or by using
it.

● Oral conversation and dialogue in pairs or groups

● Teacher–student interaction
● Using Literature
● Simulation and Role-play Activities
 ● Computer- Assisted Classroom Activities
● Reading English news and watching English TVs
● Investing in social media as email, whatsapp and facebook... etc.

Communicative competence’ is viewed as the knowledge of the rules of language and language
use and the skill to use such knowledge effectively and appropriately in real-life situations.
Communicative competence has become a major aim for second and foreign language learning
and its models have been developed to include various aspects of language such as linguistic,
sociolinguistic, pragmatic, strategic, language macro skills...etc

The Oral-Situational Approach: It resembles the audiolingual approach in being based on a

structural syllabus (i.e. a specification of the linguistic structures to be taught) but differs from it in
that it emphasizes the meanings realized by the different structures, not just their forms, and also
the importance of situational teaching structures. Was based on a behaviorist learning theory. This
viewed language learning as similar to all other types of learning, involving habit-formation. Habits
were formed when learners learned the correct responses to stimuli through repeated practice. In
accordance with skill-learning theory, later versions of the oral-situational approach incorporate
explicit explanations. The methodology employed is that of present-practise-produce (PPP), where
‘present’ refers to the provision of explicit information about a grammatical structure (directed at
declarative knowledge), ‘practise’ refers to the use of exercises that involve controlled production of
the target structure and ‘produce’ involves the performance of tasks designed to engage learners in
real-life behavior and to complete automatisation.

The Notional-Functional Approach: emphasize the functional and social aspects of competence.
These syllabuses consist of a list of functions (e.g. apologizing and requesting) and notions (e.g. past
time and possibility) together with the linguistic exponents required to realize them in
communication. The methodology employed was typically still PPP, i.e. it was accuracy based. The
notional-functional approach differs from the oral-situational approach predominantly in terms of
the content to be taught. Whereas the oral-situational approach was informed by a theory of
linguistic competence (actually, grammatical competence), the notional-functional approach was
based on a theory of communicative competence. The notional-functional approach can lay greater
claim to being ‘communicative’, in that it is meaning-centred.

The Task-Based Approach: a task-based approach to language teaching makes no attempt to

stipulate the language forms. A task as ‘an activity in which: meaning is primary; there is some sort
of relationship to the real world; task completion has some priority; and the assessment of task
performance is in terms of task outcome’. Tasks can involve listening, speaking, reading or writing or
any combination of these skills. Two very common types of tasks found in task-based materials are
information-gap tasks (e.g. Listen-and-Draw) and opinion-gap tasks (e.g. Balloon Debates). Tasks
need to be distinguished from exercises. The learning principle underlying the task-based approach
is that learners will learn a language best if they engage in activities that have interactional
authenticity. Task-based teaching is premised on the assumption that learners best learn a language
through communicating, as in first language acquisition and naturalistic L2 acquisition.
How are LC and CC defined?

Linguistic competence: unconscious knowledge, utterances/repeat, rules, lexical, syntax, not

enough. Is the ability to understand, repeat and produce new utterances (Chomsky)
The knowledge of the language code, not only grammar vocabulary but also phonetics and the
writing rules (Hymes)

What are the limitations of Chomsky’s LC?

Is not enough to explain a native speaker´s knowledge.

What contributions made the CC to explain native speaker’s use of a

language?

A language user needs to use the language not only correctly (based on linguistic competence) but
also appropriately (based on communicative competence)

_________________________________________________________________________________

What is a task? a language english activity that must satisfy four criterias:

1) A task involves a primary focus on meaning and message making

2) a task has some kind of gap (two types of gap: information gap where one person has
information that another person doesn't and the task requires them to share that
information or an opinion gap there some kind of problem and the students has to discuss
and come up with is the best solution, and that's going to involve them in expressing their
personal opinions)
3) the participants choose the linguistic and non linguistic resources needed to complete the
task (you don't teach the language will need in order to do the tsk rather you leave it up
your students to use whatever language they have and not just language, but also gesture,
facial expression, in order to try to communicate what is they want to say, is a way to do
 students choose a linguistic or non linguistic resources, a communicative purpose that is
satisfied by the communicative outcome of the task)
4) A task has a clearly defined communicative outcome.

A task is not usually restrictive

Non-linguistic outcome, linguistic/non-linguistic resources chosen by students
Meaning: focus
Gap (information an opinion)
Communicative outcome

An exercise: restrictive focus on a single language element

Linguistic Outcome
Primary focus on using language correctly
There´is no gap
Text Manipulating
Successful performance: accurate use of target features

Activity: restrictive focus on one or two languages items

Communicative outcome

Types of tasks:

1) Real life tasks vs Pedagogic tasks

2) Input based (receivers: reading and listening→ low proficiency or beginning level) vs
output-based tasks (speaking and writing → more production)
3) Closed (one clear outcome) vs open tasks (a number of possible outcomes)
4) here and now vs there and then
5) unfocused (meaning) vs focused (specific linguistic feature→ grammatical)
6) Teacher generated (work in pairs→described a picture) vs teacher generated
 What happened in EFL teaching? If there´s no a clear purpose

Task based teaching: incidental acquisition

Task supported: P-P-P (Present, practice and produce) The final step. You know what you are
going with that task.

Teaching language skill

Language is typically categorised into four skills: reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
These skills are often divided into two categories: receptive skills (reading and listening) and
productive skills (speaking and writing). However, there is some concern about this
separation, as in real life, these skills are not typically isolated from one another.
The text questions the idea that receptive skills are passive, while productive skills are more
active. It acknowledges that when speaking or writing, individuals are actively producing
language. However, it also emphasises that reading and listening require active engagement
and language activation from the reader or listener. Understanding the text's meaning
demands cognitive effort, and individuals use their language knowledge to comprehend what
they are reading or hearing.
In practice, individuals often combine various skills, whether they are reading, speaking, or
listening.

Skills together
It cites Eli Hinkel's perspective that, in meaningful communication, people employ
incremental language skills in tandem, rather than in isolation. For example, during a
conversation, people simultaneously listen and speak to interact effectively. Even when
reading, typically considered a solitary activity, it often leads to note-taking, conversation,
and commentary.
Similarly, writing is rarely a solitary activity, especially in today's digital environment, where
messaging involves reading and responding almost instantly. Even when writing alone,
individuals typically review their written content before sending it, except in the case of
hastily sent emails and text messages, which people often regret.
The text concludes that due to the interconnected nature of skill use, teaching each skill in
isolation doesn't make sense. Instead, it advocates for integrated approaches that recognize
the interplay of skills in communication. The text also alludes to the connection between
input and output in the classroom, the integration of skills, and the relationship between skill
development and language study.

Input and output

The interdependence between receptive skills (listening and reading) and productive skills
(speaking and writing) in language acquisition. What individuals say or write is significantly
influenced by what they hear and read. The primary source of language knowledge comes
from the input received.
The text discusses the various forms of input, including language input provided by teachers,
audio and video materials, reading texts, and interactions with other English speakers, both
inside and outside the classroom. Students are exposed to a range of sources that
contribute to their language development.
Additionally, the text notes that students receive input related to their output. When students
produce language and observe how it is received or perceived, this information is integrated
back into the language acquisition process. The feedback loop includes self-modification
based on how effectively communication is perceived, as well as feedback from
communication partners, such as listeners in face-to-face interactions or listeners on the
phone.
Teachers also play a role in providing feedback, not just at the end of a task but also during
the writing process or when offering ongoing support. The text indicates that there is a
dynamic relationship between input and output in language acquisition, as illustrated in
Figure 1.

Integrating skill
The text emphasises the importance of integrating different language skills in teaching and
learning. It suggests that replicating the natural processes of skill-mixing is valuable and
provides maximum learning opportunities for students. This integration is often more like a
"patchwork" model than following strict "straight arrows" or "boomerang" lesson types.
Key points regarding integrating skills include:
● Speaking as Preparation and Stimulus: Speaking activities can be used to activate
students' schemata, engage them with a topic they will read or hear about, and allow
 them to explore their thoughts and feelings about that topic. Speaking may also be
part of a longer planning sequence.
● Texts as Models: Written and spoken texts serve as models for students, particularly
when they are working on genre-focused tasks. Students benefit from analysing the
structure and style of actual reports or listening to others providing spoken directions.
● Texts as Preparation and Stimulus: Language production often stems from texts that
students encounter. For example, a news article may trigger a discussion, or a
recorded story may inspire students to tell their own narratives. Written and spoken
texts are used to stimulate students into various forms of work.
● Integrated Tasks: Students may engage in tasks that involve multiple skills. For
instance, they might listen to a recorded conversation and take notes, prepare a
spoken summary of a text, or use internet research to prepare for a role-play or a
more extensive project.
● Task-Based Learning: Task-based learning often requires skill integration since
successfully completing a task usually involves using more than one skill
simultaneously. This approach is based on the idea that various skills are
interconnected and needed to accomplish tasks effectively.
● Planning and Project Work: Teachers may weave together different skills and topics
when planning a sequence of lessons. Project work may involve research (through
reading or listening), speaking (in discussions or presentations), and writing (e.g.,
submitting a report).

Top-down and bottom-up

The text discusses the distinction between top-down and bottom-up processing in reading
and listening comprehension. It uses the metaphor of looking at a forest versus studying
individual trees within it to illustrate this concept.
● Top-Down Processing: In top-down processing, readers or listeners start by gaining a
general view of a passage by absorbing the overall picture. It is greatly facilitated
when individuals have appropriate expectations based on their existing schema,
which helps them interpret what they are about to encounter.
● Bottom-Up Processing: In bottom-up processing, readers or listeners focus on
individual words, phrases, or cohesive devices and achieve understanding by
assembling these detailed elements to form a complete understanding.
At lower levels, students often prioritise bottom-up processing because they may struggle
with recognizing individual sounds and words, even when reading (they sub-vocalize the
words they see). Therefore, it's important to focus on word and sound recognition for lower-
level students, as well as the connections between sounds and spelling.
As students progress and move beyond basic word and sound recognition, it is most useful
to view reading and listening as interactions between top-down and bottom-up processing.
Sometimes, understanding or piecing together the whole text depends on grasping individual
details, while at other times, having an overall understanding of the topic enables the
processing of the details.
Comprehension tasks

This passage emphasises the importance of selecting appropriate tasks when teaching
receptive skills like reading and listening. The key points include:

Teaching Over Testing:

- Instead of purely testing students on their comprehension, it's more beneficial to focus on
tasks that enhance their understanding.
- Tasks should aim to raise students' expectations, encourage them to extract meaning,
and promote an examination of the text. These activities are more aligned with teaching than
testing.

Balancing Testing and Teaching:

- Some comprehension tasks may seem like a test, as they require students to provide
right or wrong answers. However, they can also serve as teaching tools.
- When students work in pairs to discuss whether statements about a text are true or false,
these tasks promote understanding through conversation and comparison.
- Encouraging students to predict answers to questions before reading or listening can
create expectations and help focus their skills.

Appropriate Challenge:
- It's important to find the right level of challenge for students when selecting texts and
tasks. The goal is to make tasks challenging yet achievable.
- Achieving the right level of challenge depends on the match between the text and the
task.
- Even difficult texts can be used if the task is suitable. However, the challenge level
should be reasonable and productive.

Matching Text and Task:

- The text and task should align in terms of complexity and difficulty.
- For example, if a text is challenging, the task should be appropriately challenging as well.
In the case of a difficult news broadcast, students can start with a task like identifying the
main topics in the broadcast.

Structuring discourse

The successful communication of ideas in both written and spoken language relies on
structuring discourse effectively. Here are some key concepts related to structuring
discourse:

Coherence: Coherent writing or speech makes sense because it presents ideas in a logical
sequence that the audience can follow easily. Coherence ensures that there is a clear
connection between ideas and points, helping the audience understand the message.
Cohesion: Cohesion is a more technical aspect of structuring discourse, focusing on the
linguistic methods used to connect ideas across phrases and sentences. Cohesive devices
can include:

- Chains of reference: Using language features such as pronouns, lexical repetition,

and synonymy to refer to previously expressed ideas.
- Linkers: Words or phrases that connect ideas, such as "however," "therefore,"
"firstly," "secondly," and "although," to show relationships like addition, contrast,
cause and effect, or time.

Conversational Discourse: Conversational discourse, often found in spoken language, can

appear more chaotic because it is jointly constructed by multiple participants. Successful
communication in conversation requires participants to take turns, use appropriate discourse
markers, and employ structuring devices to facilitate smooth transitions between speakers.

Sociocultural Rules: In both written and spoken language, there are sociocultural rules that
govern interactions and communication within specific discourse communities. These rules
include norms for addressing people, variations in communication based on factors like age
and gender, and conventions for common speech events like agreeing, inviting, or
suggesting.

It's important for language learners to be aware of these structural elements and
sociocultural rules, as they play a significant role in effective communication. While language
learners do not need to speak or write exactly like native speakers, understanding and
following these conventions can help them communicate more effectively within specific
discourse communities and contexts.

Reading

Intensive reading
We use language in terms of four skills: reading, listening, speaking and writing. Divided into
two types, we have the receptive skills, terms used to refer to reading and listening, where
we have to extract meaning from the discourse, and the productive skills which are writing
and speaking, where we have to produce language.

We will talk about the skill of reading specifically.

For maximum benefits, both Intensive and Extensive reading must be achieved. Intensive
reading is often teacher-chosen and directed. This method enables developing the ability to
read for a number of different purposes such as getting the general meaning of a text, which
is sometimes called Skimming, looking and finding specific details in a text, sometimes
called Scanning and understanding what is behind the words, inference, that is, deducing
the meaning from the reading text.

Intensive reading focuses on helping the students get the general meaning of the text. To do
this, teachers can use Task 1 and task 2 and go from general to specific. They can use
Lead- in procedure and comprehension questions to activate the students’ Schema, that is
the background knowledge they have of the world, specific pre- existing knowledge about a
given topic. By giving them these questions or clues like pictures, headlines, before the
reading, we can get them to predict and speculate what the text is likely to be about. To
finish, they can resolve type 2 tasks, where they are required to examine the text in more
detail. These are follow-up activities.
There are, however, other ways to engage our students to interact with the text (even more
effective than Comprehension questions):
We can Encourage our students' responses and ask them what they liked about the text,
about the characters. Students can also mark the text using symbols that represent their
feelings about what they have read.
We can ask our students to transfer information from the text to other media or Interrogate
the text to promote critical thinking.

The vocabulary question

Sometimes teachers can pre-teach some of the vocabulary students need, in case it is
necessary. (BUT over-concentration on pre-taught words may take the focus away from
text).
Other times students will read without any lexical pre-teaching and make post-reading
vocabulary enquiry. If we want to give the student practice in real, authentic reading, they
must get past words they don't understand and still be able to comprehend the general
meaning of the text. We need to find an equilibrium on this, use common sense.

Analytical Reading

One of the main reasons that language learners read is to improve their lexical and
grammatical knowledge: we can do it
● Repeated extensive reading
● We mine texts for new language or language use which we think our students pay
attention to.
For example
● We can ask the students to read any text they found analytically
● It sometimes seems as if English is everywhere. Students at almost any level will
gain benefit from collecting, analysing and discussing the short texts they find all
around them

Reading Aloud

Reading aloud from their textbooks is one of the oldest and most common processes for
teachers, it is a way of making the class quiet (usually).
There can be problems:
● When reading aloud is organised so that the students, in sequence, read sentences
from a text that they have not seen before the result is usually unsatisfactory and
boring. The students often get confused when they read an unknown word and it
causes mistrust and fear when they read .
It is more effective when they have the text to analyse and read before.
● EXPERIENCE:
In my experience in the observations, the teacher gave them a question activity as
homework, that later in the next class they had to read aloud.
The students began to read individually all the same thing and the teacher gave them
only one minute to read.
The students read quickly but the pronunciation is bad.

One way of encouraging students to read aloud is:

● to ask them to choose their favourite sentence from a text they have just read, they
should underline it, think about how to say it and practice before.
● We can read aloud for our students with passion and commitment using different
voices so that they get excited and believe that they can do it.

Extensive reading

Extensive reading often takes place outside the class and it is believed, the more students
read, the better they get, not only at reading, but also at vocabulary recognition, spelling,
writing and even pronunciation.

Extensive reading materials

Students can read whatever they want to read for extensive reading.
At higher levels, they will probably want to read books written for a competent English-
language-speaking audience, but at lower levels this would clearly not be appropriate.
Instead, we can offer them graded readers.
Graded readers are books written (or adapted) especially for language students at different
levels.
Ideally, we will have a library of such texts at all levels for the students to choose from. The
fact that they themselves make the choice will greatly enhance their motivation to read.

Extensive reading tasks

Despite our wish that our students should enjoy reading and be motivated to do a lot of it on
their own, not all of them get the reading habit. Some do, indeed, read more and more (and
their English visibly improves as a result), but others do not.
One way of encouraging our students to read is to ask them to keep a record of what they
read and when. We might ask them, for example, to fill in a simple form for every book they
read; we might have a comment sheet on the inside cover of every book, where the students
record a satisfaction grade and leave their name and a brief comment

Another way is to encourage the students to record what books they have read and to chat
about them with others. We can also ask our students to keep a reading ‘diary’, where they
write about books they have read and what they felt about them. They can also include
notes about words and phrases that caused them difficulty.
Talking about books
Many teachers boost their students’ motivation to read by organising book clubs or ‘literature
circles’. When the students have read a book or books, they get together and talk about
what they have read. Perhaps they all discuss the same book. Perhaps different groups can
read different books and then, when a specific group has discussed their book, they can tell
the other groups about their discussions. Or even, a group that has all read the same book
could give them different roles, such as discussion director, character collector, scene
sketcher, etc. to motivate them to take responsibility for interpreting the text they have read.
It is also a way of helping them to remember what they have experienced and encouraging
them to use words and phrases from the text as they discuss its content. This will prompt
natural repetition of that language.
Thinking about what we have read also helps us process the language and content we have
come into contact with, and this is highly beneficial for language learning.

Extensive and intensive

Ask the students to discuss the contents, talk about the plots and analyse the grammar and
vocabulary. Extensive reading is important because we want our students to read as much
as they can. After all, it can be fun and it’s good for language learning. However, if
encouraging them to read for pleasure is not enough to motivate them, we will use reports
and discussion groups to keep them ‘on track’. And we may decide, at the same time, that
getting the students to analyse books that they have recently enjoyed will provide a
wonderful resource for analytical reading.

Listening

Listening comprehension is a challenging skill for many students, often more so than
teachers realize. The fast pace of spoken language can make it difficult for learners to catch
up if they pause to understand individual words. Effective listening is crucial for engaging in
conversations, understanding radio broadcasts, using the telephone, watching English-
language films, and attending presentations or lectures. Therefore, educators must assist
students in improving their listening skills by addressing the difficulties they encounter.

Skills and strategies

The use of comprehension exercises, such as multiple-choice questions and true/false

statements, in language coursebooks is a common practice. However, some educators
question their effectiveness and believe that such exercises may test students rather than
teach them listening skills.

One alternative approach is to focus on sub-skills like listening for gist, specific information,
or inference. Some argue that these skills can be transferred from one's native language to a
foreign language. Still, learners often face unique challenges in a second language.
Another strategy is to help students acquire effective listening strategies, including thinking
about the topic before listening, identifying common issues related to the topic, predicting
vocabulary, and taking notes during listening.

While some scholars believe in strategy training, others argue that there's no conclusive
evidence of its effectiveness. Instead, they suggest encouraging students to reflect on their
listening experiences and discover what works best for them. For instance, students can
keep "listening logs" where they record their listening experiences, level of difficulty, reasons
for challenges, and strategies to make listening easier.

Metacognitive processes, or thinking about what one does while listening, can be beneficial.
Students can experiment with techniques like making predictions, noting general ideas,
writing down specific words, and using or not using transcripts.

In summary, a balanced approach to teaching listening skills involves promoting student

reflection on their listening experiences while also providing ample listening practice with
different goals to prepare them for real-life language encounters.

Top-down listening

In active listening, "top-down" processing refers to an approach where learners first aim to
grasp the overall, general meaning of what they are listening to, as opposed to focusing on
individual words and phrases. Understanding the main message or identifying the necessary
information is considered key for success in listening comprehension.

Several strategies can help students approach listening tasks with a top-down mindset:

Using Prediction: Giving students the opportunity to predict what they are about to hear
helps them get mentally prepared for the listening task and activate their background
knowledge. Pre-teaching vocabulary or showing them words and phrases related to the topic
can aid in prediction. This approach engages their previous experiences and linguistic
knowledge, improving their listening comprehension.

Getting the General Idea: Encouraging students to identify the general idea or main purpose
of the communication without needing to understand every single word can boost their
listening confidence.

Maintaining Attention: To keep students focused during listening, provide them with
interesting tasks to complete simultaneously. This can include listening for the main purpose,
inferring meaning, filling in forms, drawing pictures, or following directions on a map.

Multiple Listening: For improved listening skills, students should have the opportunity to
listen to the same material multiple times. Each repeated listening, with the right guidance,
will likely lead to increased comprehension and a better understanding of how words and
phrases combine in a coherent text.
Working Together: Allowing students to work together and discuss what they have just
listened to can reduce anxiety and enhance their understanding. Collaborative discussions
can help students not only share their interpretations of the content but also reflect on how
they reached those interpretations, identifying the cues that aided their understanding.

These strategies aim to foster effective listening skills by promoting active engagement and
enhancing comprehension of spoken language.

Bottom-up listening

Bottom-up processing in listening occurs when listeners focus on understanding individual

words and sounds as a means of grasping the overall meaning of spoken language. Many
students find listening challenging, particularly those at lower proficiency levels, due to
difficulties in processing words and sounds. Fluent speakers often use features like ellipsis,
juncture, and assimilation in their connected speech, which can pose problems for learners
who are not accustomed to these patterns.

To help students recognize different sounds, words, and features of connected speech,
teachers should create opportunities for them to hear the same elements repeatedly. Here
are several strategies to enhance bottom-up processing in listening:

Dictation: Teachers can dictate sentences with specific features they want students to
become familiar with. Students write down the sentences they hear, and the teacher reads
them as many times as needed for practice. Comparing what they've written with their peers
helps improve their understanding of words and sounds. Dictogloss, a similar activity,
involves students writing down as many words as they can while the teacher reads a short
text.

Micro Listening: In addition to listening to longer passages (top-down processing), students

can benefit from listening to small phrases and elements that pose difficulties for them.
Practising these elements will make it easier for them to understand when they encounter
similar features in longer listening texts.

Audio 'Concordances':Teachers can use audio editing software to record and repeat short
sentences containing specific words, phrases, assimilation, or ellipsis. This creates a
listening drill that helps students become more adept at identifying these elements.

Narrow Listening: Students can listen to multiple short texts on the same theme, topic, or
genre. The repetition of words and phrases across these texts reinforces their
understanding.

Transcripts: Providing students with transcripts of the listening material helps them separate
words and phrases from a continuous stream of discourse. Reading along with the spoken
text allows them to identify and understand words more effectively.
Extensive listening
Extensive listening is a crucial practice for students looking to improve their listening skills.
Since there isn't enough time to achieve this solely in the classroom, students need to
engage in extensive listening on their own. Extensive listening is the spoken version of
extensive reading, where students listen to a significant amount of spoken English. This
practice enhances their ability to understand spoken language and contributes to their
overall language proficiency.

To encourage students to engage in extensive listening, teachers can provide them with
reasons to use available resources and recommend specific listening materials. It's
important to explain the benefits of extensive listening and establish agreements on the
amount and type of listening students should do on their own. Some recommended
resources for extensive listening include graded readers with accompanying audio, podcasts
designed for English language learners, and TED talks, which are often short and
accompanied by visuals.

Listening responses can help keep students motivated and improve their understanding of
how to become better listeners. Teachers can ask students to fill out report forms,
summarising the contents of what they've listened to, assessing the difficulty level, and
noting the topic. Students can also write comments on platforms like Facebook, on cards
placed in a comments box, or in a listening record book. These response tasks provide
students with additional incentives to listen.

Combining reading with listening is another effective strategy for improving listening skills,
especially at lower levels. Students can read a written transcript of the text before or during
the listening experience. This approach helps them associate sounds with words. For
example, students with graded readers that come with an audio version can read the text
while listening to the audio track.

Additionally, students can benefit from studying transcripts of university lectures in British
universities, particularly if they are non-native English speakers. Analysing these transcripts
helps students understand discourse markers and other speech patterns used by their
lecturers to identify main points, change subjects, summarise, and more, making them more
efficient listeners.

Live listening

Live listening is an effective method for promoting genuine communication in the language
classroom. It allows students to engage in real-time interactions with the teacher or visitors,
providing opportunities to practice listening in authentic face-to-face situations. Live listening
also encourages the development of listening "repair" strategies, such as using expressions
like "Sorry? What was that?" or "I didn't quite catch that," repeating information to address
communication breakdowns, using rising intonation for clarification, and rephrasing to
confirm understanding.

Live listening can take various forms, including:

1. Reading Aloud: Teachers can read texts or dialogues aloud to the class, providing
students with a clear spoken version of written content. The teacher's delivery should be
engaging and expressive, making it an enjoyable listening experience for students.
Dialogues can be acted out with the teacher playing multiple roles or by involving a
colleague, demonstrating conversational settings.

2. Storytelling: Teachers are well-suited to tell stories, which serve as excellent listening
material. Students can predict the story's progression, describe the characters or offer
comments. Retelling stories is a powerful way to boost language proficiency and encourages
effective repetition. Students can retell the stories from different angles or points of view and
even engage in role-playing scenes from the stories they've heard.

3. Interviews and Conversations: Live interviews, particularly when students generate their
own questions, are motivating listening activities. Students listen attentively for answers to
questions they have personally asked. It is more engaging compared to answering questions
from others. Inviting strangers to the classroom for interviews or discussions is a valuable
experience, although it may require some effort. If direct visits are challenging, students can
interview visitors via video calls, such as Skype. Alternatively, teachers can adopt different
personas or subjects of expertise for students to interview.

These live listening activities facilitate not only language comprehension but also real-world
communication skills and engagement with prosodic and paralinguistic cues.

Pre-recorded audio
The use of pre-recorded audio material for language learners has both advantages and
disadvantages in the classroom:

Advantages of pre-recorded audio:

Different Voices: Pre-recorded material exposes students to various voices, accents,

genders, and age groups, providing a broader listening experience compared to just the
teacher's voice.

Availability: Pre-recorded listening materials are widely available and easily accessible.
Many teaching resources include audio tracks, and the internet offers a vast repository of
audio and video content. Most radio stations also provide "listen again" options for their
broadcasts.

Repetition: Pre-recorded material can be replayed multiple times, allowing students to

practise listening and comprehension repeatedly.

Specially-Produced Materials: Numerous audio materials have been created explicitly for
English as a foreign or second language learners. These may accompany course materials,
graded readers, or be available through specially-made podcasts.

Transcripts: Many pre-recorded audio materials come with transcripts, which can be useful
for students when studying in conjunction with listening, facilitating comprehension.
Disadvantages of pre-recorded audio:

Acoustics: In large classrooms with poor acoustics, audibility may be an issue. Ensuring that
all students can hear the recording equally well can be challenging.

Simultaneous Listening: In classrooms where only one audio track is played, all students
listen at the same speed, dictated by the recording itself. This may not be ideal when
students need to extract specific information from the audio.

Lack of Interaction: Students cannot interact with the speakers on an audio track as they
would in face-to-face conversations, and they often cannot see the speakers unless the
material includes video.

Unnatural Setting: Group listening in a classroom setting, with everyone simultaneously

listening to audio, does not reflect typical or everyday listening behaviour.

Despite these disadvantages, pre-recorded audio is still used in language classrooms due to
its advantages. To mitigate potential issues, teachers should check the audio quality and
devices before the class, consider adjusting the position of speakers or students to address
acoustics problems, and implement strategies like students controlling when to stop and
start the audio or allowing students to use different devices in small groups. In a self-access
centre or computer lab, individualised listening is preferred, but it may be challenging to
manage in larger classrooms.

Using film and video

Using film clips and videos in language learning offers several advantages for students.
These visual and auditory resources provide a valuable opportunity for students to observe
"language in use" and enhance their listening skills. Some of the key benefits of
incorporating film and video into language lessons include:

Visual and Paralinguistic Cues: Students can see how intonation aligns with facial
expressions and gestures. For instance, they can observe how people shrug their shoulders
when saying "I don't know." This visual context helps learners understand how language
relates to nonverbal communication.

Cultural Insights: Film exposes students to various cultures and customs, enabling them to
grasp cross-cultural clues. They can observe how people stand when talking to each other,
how close they are, and what kind of greetings or body language are used in different social
and business contexts. This insight into cultural behavior is challenging to convey through
books or audio alone.

Real-World Communication:Film clips depict real-life interactions, allowing students to

experience authentic dialogues and conversations. They can encounter different accents,
speaking speeds, and conversational dynamics in a natural context.
Versatile Use: Filmed extracts can serve as the central focus of a lesson or be integrated
into longer sequences. Both longer videos (e.g., talks or movies) and shorter clips (ranging
from 30 seconds to five minutes) can be used to meet specific learning objectives.

Attention and Engagement: As students are accustomed to watching videos for

entertainment, providing them with meaningful viewing and listening tasks ensures their full
engagement. Well-structured tasks help maintain their focus on the language and content.

Online Resources: The internet offers a vast repository of self-made film clips on platforms
like YouTube, where individuals from diverse backgrounds share videos related to various
topics. Students can use these resources for extensive or intensive viewing, and then report
back to the class, fostering language practice and discussion.

Viewing and listening techniques

These viewing and listening techniques aim to engage students' curiosity by encouraging
prediction, setting expectations, and making the learning experience more interactive and
enjoyable. By implementing these strategies, students not only practice their listening skills
but also actively participate in the learning process. Here's an overview of these techniques:

Silent Viewing (for Language): In this technique, the teacher plays a film extract without
sound, and students must guess what the characters are saying by observing gestures and
body language. Afterward, the teacher plays the same extract with sound for students to
compare their guesses with the actual dialogue.

Silent Viewing (for Music): Similar to the previous technique, but applied to music. Students
watch a sequence without sound and predict what kind of music would fit the scene. When
the sequence is shown again with sound, they evaluate if their music choice matches the
mood intended by the director.

Freeze Frame: At any point during a video sequence, the teacher can pause the video and
ask students to predict what will happen next or what a character will say next.

Partial Viewing: Students are given only a limited view of the screen, either by covering parts
with cards or gradually revealing the picture. This exercise challenges students to
contextualise the language they are hearing, encouraging careful listening.

Fast Forward: The teacher fast-forwards the video sequence, making it progress rapidly
without sound. Afterward, students are asked about the content and what the characters
might have been saying.

Pictureless Listening (Language/Music/Sound Effects): Students listen to dialogue, music, or

sound effects without seeing the visuals. They make predictions about the scene,
characters, and the story based solely on the audio.

Picture or Speech: The class is divided into two groups, with one group facing the screen
and the other facing away. The students watching describe what's happening to those who
can't see the screen, promoting fluency and a mix of receptive and productive language
skills. The groups can switch roles midway through the excerpt.

Subtitles: Subtitled films can be used in various ways. English subtitles provide students with
both auditory and visual input in English, enhancing comprehension. If subtitles are in the
students' native language (L1), the teacher can play the video without sound and ask
students to predict the English dialogue based on the L1 subtitles.

Videotelling: Students predict what they will see in a video clip based on clues given by the
teacher. These predictions are used to create a story that introduces a new language. After
viewing the video, students can compare their predictions with what they saw and then retell
the story.

The sound of music

Using music in the language classroom is an effective way to engage students and stimulate
their emotional response while learning. It can set the mood, make the learning environment
more relaxed, and bridge the gap between leisure and educational activities. However, it's
essential to consider students' preferences and reactions when using music in the
classroom. Here are some key points and strategies for incorporating music in language
teaching:

Music for Mood and Preparation: Music can be used to change the atmosphere in the
classroom or prepare students for different activities. It can help create a more relaxed
environment for speaking or stimulate creativity in writing tasks.

Students' Choice: Letting students decide if they would like to have music in the background
is a good practice. Additionally, allowing them to suggest or select the music can make the
experience more enjoyable.

Listening and Analysing: Playing various styles of music in class and asking students to
discuss the type of movie, people, mood, and setting they associate with the music can be a
fun and engaging activity.

Using Song Lyrics: Song lyrics can be a valuable resource in language teaching, especially
when students are enthusiastic about a particular song. Teachers can work on the lyrics for
language learning and cultural exploration.

Dealing with Changing Preferences: Teenage students' music preferences can change
rapidly. To address this, consider having students bring their own favourite songs to class or
take the time to familiarise yourself with their chosen songs.

Assessing Song Suitability: When using songs in the classroom, consider questions like why
you are using the song, whether the lyrics are grammatically correct, if the content is
appropriate, and whether the words are clearly enunciated. This helps ensure that the song
aligns with the learning objectives.
Various Activities: There are numerous activities teachers can do with songs, such as filling
in the blanks in lyrics, rearranging song lines in the correct order, deleting rhyming words
and asking students to put them back, correcting slang terms, or practising listening,
reading, and singing along with the music.

Use with Young Learners: For young learners, songs can be used to teach them basics like
the alphabet, numbers, colours, and more. Actions, dancing, and various interaction
activities can make singing more enjoyable for children.

Jazz Chants: Jazz chants, as developed by Carolyn Graham, involve setting language drills,
sentences, and conversation lines to a rhythmic beat. This helps students understand
English stress patterns and improves their confidence in speaking. It can be a fun and
effective technique.

Writing

The text highlights the reluctance to focus on the skill of writing in both teachers and learners
due to the special efforts required. While listening and reading are more readily accepted
and speaking is part of the natural learning process, writing tends to be neglected. The text
raises two essential questions: what do learners need to become effective writers, and how
can we ensure that they willingly engage in writing rather than being forced into it?

Literacies
In the past, literacy was associated with the ability to perform discrete, technical skills
acquired through formal education, such as decoding and encoding meanings and using
writing tools. However, the definition of literacy has evolved to encompass more complex
and socially situated aspects, including digital literacy in the online world. Basic writing ability
is considered essential for language learners and is associated with various social roles.
Different domains of life require different literacies, and the exact nature of these literacies
matters.

For example, being able to fill in a form suggests a basic level of literacy, but someone who
struggles to write a letter of application demonstrates a lower standard of literacy. The
concept of genre is closely related to literacy, as different written genres serve specific
purposes for discourse communities. In foreign language teaching, it's essential to determine
what kind of writing students are expected to produce and what literacies are required based
on their academic discipline and level of study, especially in English for academic purposes
(EAP).

Handwriting
While electronic communication has become increasingly prevalent, handwriting remains an
important skill, as many language exams and various written assignments are still conducted
using pen and paper. Handwriting is unlikely to become obsolete in the near future. Many
students, especially those whose native-language orthography differs significantly from
English, may struggle with forming English letters and need instruction on proper letter
formation, including the direction of writing strokes.
Handwriting is a personal skill, and students should not be expected to have identical styles.
However, poorly formed letters can negatively impact the reader's perception of the writer,
which is undesirable, especially for tasks that will be assessed in tests or exams.
Encouraging students with handwriting difficulties to improve their penmanship is essential.

Spelling
Correct spelling may not always be critical for understanding a written message, but it can
significantly impact the reader's perception. Poor spelling is often associated with a lack of
education or care, and this can affect the reader's opinion negatively. While informal
contexts like emails, social media, and text messages may tolerate inexact spelling, more
formal situations, including professional emails, demand accurate spelling.

Spelling in English can be challenging due to the irregular correspondence between sounds
and spellings. A single sound or phoneme may have various spellings, and the same
spelling can represent multiple sounds. To help students with spelling, it's essential to
highlight common spelling patterns and phoneme-grapheme relationships. Encourage
students to explore words with similar spellings and sounds and practice spelling rules.

Spelling variations between different English varieties, such as British and American English,
can also pose challenges. Students can focus on a specific variety of English as a spelling
model, but it's essential to make them aware of other spelling differences and provide
resources like dictionaries that show variations.

Reading is an effective way to improve spelling, especially extensive reading. In the early
stages, students can engage in activities like finding words with specific endings or
examining common letter combinations in words. Encouraging students to reflect on their
copying mistakes when copying from written models can help raise their spelling awareness.

Layout and punctuation

Different writing communities, both within and between cultures, adhere to specific
punctuation and layout conventions in various forms of communication like letters, emails,
reports, and publicity materials. These conventions are often not transferable from one
community or language to another. For instance, different languages use distinct punctuation
conventions for the quotation of direct speech. Additionally, variations exist in how writers
use punctuation marks, like commas and full stops, with some languages employing more
commas than others.

Specific punctuation conventions, such as the capitalization of names, months, and the
pronoun "I," are unique to one or a few languages. While punctuation can reflect personal
style, violating well-established customs can make a piece of writing appear awkward to
many readers.

Different writing genres also have their own layout conventions. Business and personal
letters differ from each other, and emails have their unique conventions, including subject
headings, greetings, and sign-offs. Newspaper articles follow specific layouts, with variations
between print and online versions, and different newspapers may have their own layout
conventions.

Successful writers, whether in their native language or a foreign one, should be aware of
these conventions and use or modify them as needed to convey their message clearly. This
awareness is an integral part of successful genre writing.

Text construction
For students to become successful writers, they need to have knowledge of how written text
is structured, which includes understanding coherence. Coherence refers to the ability to
organise a text in a way that is clear and makes sense.

When students analyse texts within a specific genre, they should focus on tracking the
sequence of arguments and ideas presented in the text. However, it is equally important for
them to grasp the concept of cohesion and the use of cohesive devices. This entails
understanding how to create connections within a text by employing the same words, related
words, synonyms, and other linguistic devices. Students should also learn how to use
pronouns and phrases to reference previously mentioned elements and how to maintain
tense agreement throughout their writing. An understanding of these aspects is crucial for
students to become effective and successful writers.

Approaches to student writing

The teaching of writing skills involves various approaches that can be used both inside and
outside the classroom. In deciding which approach to adopt, educators need to make
several choices. These choices may include determining whether the emphasis should be
on the process of writing or the final product, whether students should study different written
genres, and whether creative writing should be encouraged, either individually or through
collaborative efforts. The ultimate goal is to instil a "writing habit" in students, enabling them
to become proficient writers.

Process and product

In the teaching of writing, educators can choose to focus either on the final product of writing
or on the writing process itself. A product approach emphasizes the construction of the end
result as the primary focus. On the other hand, a process approach to writing involves
paying attention to the various stages that any piece of writing goes through. This approach
aims to help students understand and replicate the skills used by writers, emphasizing pre-
writing phases, editing, redrafting, and producing a finished version.

The writing process is not purely linear but can be seen as a recursive process, with writers
moving around a metaphorical "process wheel." This involves revisiting and revising various
stages of the writing process, even after what may seem like a final version of the work.

While the process approach to writing takes time and can be more time-consuming, it offers
valuable opportunities for discussion, research, language study, and interaction between
students and teachers. It may not always be suitable for every writing task, such as quick
communication games or time-limited exam writing tasks. However, understanding the
writing process and encouraging students to plan, draft, redraft, and review their work is
essential for longer pieces of writing and can help develop students' ability to make
necessary corrections when writing under time constraints.

Genre
A genre approach to teaching writing emphasizes that writing within different discourse
communities is often highly genre-bound. This means that writers construct their texts in
ways that allow members of that community to instantly recognize the kind of writing it is.
Genres represent the norms and conventions specific to various types of writing, such as
advertisements, poetry, formal letters, or newspaper articles.

When teachers focus on genre, students typically study authentic texts within the genre they
are going to write before they start composing their own pieces. For example, if the goal is to
teach students how to write business letters, they first examine typical examples of such
letters. This genre-based analysis forms part of the pre-writing phase. It enables students to
understand the context, audience, and effective language use associated with a particular
genre.

There are different approaches to teaching genre. One approach involves providing students
with various models within the genre so they can identify the common features and
differences. Another approach begins with students producing their own writing based on a
given topic, and then comparing their work to a model text to notice the differences. This
approach helps students understand what the genre requires and how to align their writing
with it.

However, there are concerns about adopting a genre approach. Students might become
imitators of a single writing style rather than creative language users. To address this,
students need to see many different example texts from the same genre, allowing them to
identify both similarities and differences between them. Additionally, combining genre
analysis with the process approach to writing helps students understand both the
conventions of the genre and the writing processes necessary for effective writing.

Creative writing
Creative writing encompasses imaginative tasks like writing poetry, stories, and plays. This
type of writing often leads to a sense of achievement, and students take pride in their
creative work. It promotes effective learning as it encourages students to engage more
deeply and strive to express their thoughts and emotions using appropriate language. When
students write creatively, they often draw from their own experiences, making the writing
process more motivating and personally meaningful.

Creative writing encourages an input-output cycle, where students get inspired by the task,
create their work, and then seek an audience for it. Having an audience enhances students'
motivation and sense of pride in their creations. Sharing their work with others can be done
through websites, class notice boards, magazines, anthologies, and more.

However, some students may find creative writing challenging, especially if they struggle to
come up with ideas. Teachers play a crucial role in encouraging and guiding them through
this process, and it's essential to start with motivating, straightforward tasks to build the
writing habit gradually.

Writing as a collaborative activity

Collaborative writing, where multiple individuals work together on writing tasks, can be highly
effective and beneficial for language learners. It can be applied to both the writing process
and genre study, offering several advantages.

In the context of the writing process, collaborative writing allows for enhanced reviewing and
evaluation as multiple individuals can provide feedback and suggestions. It also fosters a
livelier idea generation when working as a team. Collaborative writing can be especially
engaging for young learners, as it encourages them to develop and draft stories collectively,
facilitating the brainstorming of ideas.

For genre-based writing, having multiple perspectives can lead to more comprehensive
analyses of genre-specific texts and more successful genre-specific text production. When
students collaborate, they can work together to better understand the conventions and
requirements of a particular genre.

Collaborative writing is particularly effective when students are physically present around a
computer monitor, enabling real-time editing and contributions. However, it's not limited to in-
person collaboration. Teachers often create online groups on platforms like Facebook and
Twitter, where students can share their writing, ask questions, and provide feedback to their
peers.

Group writing offers motivation and various learning opportunities, including research,
discussion, peer evaluation, and a sense of pride in accomplishing a task as a group. It can
be a valuable method to enhance writing skills while promoting cooperation and interaction
among students.

Building the writing habit

Helping students build the writing habit is essential, especially for those who lack confidence
or enthusiasm in writing. There are various activities and strategies that can be employed to
achieve this goal:

Promote instant writing: Encourage students to complete half-sentences quickly, dictating

phrases for them to finish. For example, "Before I am thirty I would like to..." or "Don't run in
the corridors." This approach helps students start writing without overthinking and builds
confidence.
Respond to music: Use music as a stimulus for writing. Students can describe what a piece
of music suggests to them, share how it makes them feel, or write stories inspired by the
music.

Quickwrite activities: Implement "quick write" exercises, where students are given a time limit
and asked to write continuously during that period. Encourage them not to stop, look back,
or erase anything, even if they don't know a word.

Patterns and frameworks: Provide students with patterns and structures to follow, especially
at lower levels. For example, give them a model for postcard-writing or simple poem
structures, allowing them to express themselves within a supportive framework.

Picture-based activities: Use pictures as prompts for writing. Students can describe images,
create postcards based on a given picture, or write interviews with historical figures depicted
in portraits.

Writing games: Incorporate writing games like story reconstruction activities, where students
collaborate to build a story from a set of pictures, or "story circles," where they create a story
together in groups.

Writing for fun and practice: Encourage students to write for enjoyment and practice,
emphasising the process rather than treating it purely as a skill-building exercise. This
approach falls between writing for learning and writing for writing.

Engaging tasks: Provide interesting and enjoyable writing tasks that motivate students.
Ensure that they have enough information, appropriate language, and guidance to complete
the tasks effectively. You can dictate half-sentences or offer ideas when necessary, so
students don't feel stuck or uninspired.

Writing-for-learning, writing-for-writing

To promote writing as a skill, it's important to distinguish between writing-for-learning and

writing-for-writing:

1. Writing-for-learning: This type of writing is primarily used to aid students in learning and
practising language. It is focused on reinforcing language concepts and testing their
understanding. For example, asking students to write sentences using a specific
grammatical structure like the "going to" future tense is a writing-for-learning task. The
primary goal is to help students remember and apply the language rules.

2. Writing-for-writing: In contrast, writing-for-writing tasks are designed to develop and

enhance students' writing skills. These tasks aim to improve their ability to write effectively in
different genres and styles. For instance, assigning students to create a magazine
advertisement is a writing-for-writing task because it focuses on developing their skills in
advertising copywriting. Similarly, asking students to write a narrative story emphasises their
ability to craft compelling narratives, rather than just testing their knowledge of verb tenses.
If the goal is to build students' writing skills, it is essential to incorporate writing-for-writing
tasks as frequently as appropriate. These tasks help students become proficient writers in
various genres and styles, emphasising the development of their writing abilities beyond
mere language practice.

The roles of the teacher

In the context of teaching writing, teachers take on specific roles to support and guide
students effectively:

1. Motivator: Teachers play a crucial role in motivating students to write. They create a
conducive environment for idea generation, emphasize the importance of the writing task,
and encourage students to put in their best effort. For more extended writing tasks, teachers
may need to invest extra time and effort in sustaining motivation. In creative writing activities,
some students may struggle to generate ideas, and teachers can provide suggestions or
prompts to help them.

2. Resource Provider: During longer writing tasks, teachers should be prepared to supply
information and language support as needed. They make themselves available to assist
students and offer guidance as students work on their writing. Discussions with individual
students or those working in pairs or groups can be beneficial, as writing allows for more
extended interaction compared to spoken language.

3. Feedback Provider: Offering feedback on writing tasks requires care and consideration.
Teachers should provide positive and encouraging feedback, especially regarding the
content of students' writing. In process writing, feedback is aimed at helping students
improve their earlier drafts, refining their ideas and expression. When providing corrective
feedback, teachers select the aspects to focus on based on students' current needs and the
specific tasks they are working on. In some cases, teachers may involve students in
decisions about what areas to address in the feedback process.

Portfolios and journals

Educational institutions and teachers often use portfolios (including e-portfolios) to have
students maintain records of their written work over a period of time. Portfolios serve various
purposes:

Assessment: Portfolios are used for assessment purposes, providing a more comprehensive
evaluation of students' progress compared to a single final exam. This approach is
considered fairer as it considers various pieces of work written over time.

Encouraging Pride: By encouraging students to keep and curate examples of their written
work, teachers promote a sense of pride in their writing abilities and the quality of their work.
Language Learning Portfolios: The European Language Portfolio (ELP) from the Council of
Europe is a specific type of language learning portfolio that aims to foster learner autonomy,
plurilingualism, and intercultural awareness. It comprises three main elements:

- Language Passport: This document allows language learners to summarise their

linguistic and cultural identity, language qualifications, language use experiences, and
interactions with different cultures.

- Language Biography: Learners can set learning targets, reflect on their language learning
experiences, and evaluate their language proficiency using the CEFR (Common European
Framework of Reference) "can do" statements.

- Dossier: In this section, students maintain examples of their work, such as projects,
reports, diplomas, and presentations, indicating whether they were completed individually or
with other students.

Reflective Writing: Encouraging students to keep journals or logs related to their learning
experience, such as learning journals or listening logs, helps them reflect on their language
learning process and express their feelings about it. Writing in journals allows students to try
new writing techniques while reflecting on their English language learning.

When implementing journals or reflective writing activities, teachers should consider various
factors:

- Feedback and Responses: Teachers need to clarify whether students want them to read
their journals and the kind of feedback they expect. Students may specify whether they want
comments on content or assistance with language errors.

- Workload Management: Given the time constraints, teachers may not be able to read and
respond to all journals or e-journals from all students regularly. To manage the workload, a
balance should be struck between providing feedback and time constraints.

- Negotiation with Students: Teachers should consider negotiating the terms of how they will
respond to students' writing with the students themselves. This helps align expectations and
preferences.

Speaking

Teachers use a variety of activities to encourage students to speak in class. The choice of
activities depends on the students' characteristics, enthusiasm for speaking, and the specific
speaking skills they need to practise. In addition to developing fluency, students must learn
to use varying levels of formality and politeness. They should be capable of speaking in
different contexts and for various purposes. However, students are often hesitant to speak,
so the challenge for teachers is to motivate them to do so.
Spoken language
In language teaching, helping students achieve competence in spoken English is a primary
objective. This entails teaching them the rules and conventions of spoken English, including
its distinctive grammar compared to written English. Spoken English often features ellipsis,
phrases used to buy thinking time (e.g., "well," "you know"), and grammatical structures that
differ from written English.

Several approaches have been suggested to address the phenomenon of spoken grammar.
One approach is the "passive knowledge approach," where students listen to proficient
speakers and study transcripts. This approach makes them aware of the characteristics of
spoken grammar. Alternatively, teachers can directly teach spoken grammar, including how
to use "buying time" language and construct two-step questions.

In addition to grammar, lexical phrases, such as common expressions and adjacency pairs,
play a crucial role in fluent speech. Lexical phrases and adjacency pairs follow specific
patterns in conversations, and students should learn and recognize them.

Conversational strategies are also essential, especially when students need to navigate
unexpected situations or express uncertainty. Teaching students how to use phrases like
"Would you mind repeating that?" or "I don't quite understand what you mean by that" helps
them communicate effectively. These strategies include the use of repair strategies when
encountering unfamiliar words and discourse markers to clarify or rephrase ideas.

Furthermore, being a good listener is just as crucial as being a good speaker in successful
conversations. Students should be taught to display active listening skills, such as body
language and appropriate responses like "Umm," "Yes," and "Really?," to encourage the
flow of conversation. Learning how to take or withhold turns, engage in interruptions, and
invite comments is also essential for effective listener skills. Role cards and activities can
help students practise these skills.

Students and speaking

Encouraging students to speak in the classroom can vary in difficulty. In a conducive
learning environment where students have a good rapport, share a common language level,
and are provided with engaging topics and tasks, participation often occurs naturally and
enthusiastically. However, there are situations where getting students to speak can be more
challenging.

Several factors may contribute to this difficulty. The classroom dynamics, or the mix of
students, may not be ideal for fostering active participation. The choice of topics or tasks
might not resonate with the students, making them less inclined to speak up. Additionally,
the organisation of the task itself can sometimes be problematic.

One of the most common obstacles is the inherent reluctance of certain students to speak or
engage in class activities. In such cases, the role that teachers assume becomes crucial in
overcoming this challenge and encouraging student participation.
Reluctant students
When encouraging students to speak a foreign language, it's essential to understand that
individuals typically fall on a continuum between the desire to speak and the fear of
appearing foolish. The teacher's role is to shift students towards the desire end of this
continuum by helping them overcome any natural shyness and fostering positive attitudes
toward speaking. Several strategies can be employed to achieve this goal:

Creating a Relaxing Environment: It's crucial to reduce students' affective filter, which is the
barrier resulting from anxiety that hinders successful communication. Using elements like
background music can help create a relaxed atmosphere in the classroom, making students
feel more comfortable about speaking.

Matching Level and Task: To reduce students' nervousness, it's important to assign
speaking tasks at an appropriate level of complexity. Tasks that align with students'
proficiency levels are more likely to elicit active participation.

Using Pairwork and Groupwork: Instead of conducting whole-class question and answer
activities, employing pairwork and groupwork allows all students, even the shy ones, to
engage in conversation, providing a less intimidating environment for speaking.

Preparation: Giving students time to think about what they're going to say can improve their
speaking performance. Some students may need this preparation time to gather their
thoughts and articulate their ideas effectively.

Including Fluency Activities: Incorporating quick, instant fluency activities into lessons, such
as "quickspeak," "quickwrite," and "quickread," helps students become more accustomed to
speaking on the spot. These activities can be particularly useful for improving speaking
confidence.

Adopting Appropriate Teacher Roles: Teachers play various roles when students are
speaking, and these roles can impact students' comfort levels. Encouragement and
feedback are essential, and sometimes, teachers may even participate in the activity to
make students feel at ease.

Mandatory Participation: Techniques like "numbered heads" and jigsaw reading activities
ensure that all students actively participate in group tasks, preventing some from
disengaging and encouraging equal involvement from everyone.

Fostering a supportive and relaxed speaking environment, adapting tasks to student

proficiency levels, and promoting mandatory participation can help students overcome their
fear of speaking and enhance their desire to communicate in the foreign language.

Speaking repetition
Repetition is a fundamental element in effective language learning, particularly in the context
of speaking practice. Providing students with multiple opportunities to express themselves,
practice language, and enhance their confidence is essential for language development.
Here are several ways repetition can be encouraged in speaking practice:
1. Dialogue Role Rotation: Students can take turns assuming different roles in dialogues,
enabling them to repeat and practise various parts of the conversation. This approach helps
familiarise them with different language functions and expressions.

2. Multiple Perspectives: Students can retell the same story from different perspectives,
viewpoints, or tenses. This technique encourages repetition while also challenging students
to use language creatively and contextually.

3. Time-Compressed Speaking: Asking students to retell a story, express an idea, or

describe an event within progressively shorter time frames (e.g., four minutes, two minutes,
one minute) encourages quick thinking and efficient language use.

4. Reciting Poems and Speeches: Students can learn to "speak well" by reciting poems and
speeches. This involves reading, analysing, and listening to well-delivered texts. After
individual practice, students can perform the piece in front of the class or record it and share
it online, refining their pronunciation, intonation, and delivery.

5. Task Recording and Transcription: A powerful repetition technique involves students

recording their speech and then transcribing it. Afterward, they can review their
transcriptions, identify errors, and correct them. When students repeat the task with the
improvements in mind, they often perform better the second time.

Acting from scripts

In language teaching, incorporating drama and role-playing can be a highly effective way to
engage students and enhance their language skills. Here are some strategies and insights
related to using drama, playscripts, and dialogues in the language classroom:

Acting Out Scenes: Teachers can ask students to act out scenes from plays, coursebooks,
or dialogues, sometimes filming the performances for further analysis and feedback. These
live performances provide students with practical experience in using the language in a
natural context.

Playscripts: When working on plays or playscripts, students should approach the task as real
actors. Teachers can guide them through the script, emphasising appropriate stress,
intonation, speed, and the use of adverbs to convey emotions (e.g., anxiously, quietly,
passionately). Repeated practice of lines ensures that acting becomes a language-producing
and learning activity. Drama can also help with pronunciation, contextualising language, and
developing emotional and intellectual aspects of students' personalities.

Drama and Confidence Building: Drama activities can significantly boost student confidence,
contextualise language use, and foster empathy for different characters. It engages students
as complete individuals, blending emotional and intellectual elements of their personalities.
Drama practice involves various aspects, including gesture, facial expression, eye contact,
movement, proxemics (spatial relationships), and prosody (intonation and rhythm).
Dialogues: Students can act out coursebook dialogues or write their own dialogues, ensuring
they have opportunities to practise before performing. To address speech phenomena and
make dialogues sound more natural, students can extend or amend coursebook dialogues.
Exaggerating intonation and gesture can make the activity more enjoyable and instructive.
Students can also practise dialogues in different ways, changing roles and delivery styles to
enhance variety and comprehension.

Creating a Supportive Environment: When selecting students to perform dialogues in front of

the class, teachers should consider students' comfort levels and not choose the shyest
individuals first. Building a supportive and encouraging classroom atmosphere is crucial for
helping all students feel at ease with drama and speaking activities.

Incorporating drama and dialogues into language learning not only aids language
development but also promotes self-confidence, empathy, and a deeper understanding of
linguistic and emotional expression.

Communication games
Communication games in language teaching are designed to encourage students to speak
fluently and naturally. Two noteworthy categories of such games are information-gap games
and television and radio games, which can be adapted for the classroom:

Information-Gap Games: These games involve situations where there is an information gap
between students. They often require one student to communicate with a partner to solve a
puzzle, draw a picture (describe and draw), arrange items in the correct order (describe and
arrange), or find similarities and differences between pictures. Information-gap games
promote interaction and language use as students collaborate to fill in missing details or
solve a problem.

Television and Radio Games: These games draw inspiration from popular radio and TV
shows and offer engaging fluency activities in the classroom. Here are a few examples:

1. Twenty Questions: In this game, a chairperson thinks of an object and classifies it as

animal, vegetable, mineral, or a combination. A team must determine the object's
identity by asking only yes/no questions, such as "Can you use it in the kitchen?" or
"Is it bigger than a person?" Points are earned for guessing the answer in 20
questions or fewer.

2. Just a Minute: Adapted from a UK radio show, participants must speak for 60
seconds on a topic assigned by the chairperson without hesitation, repetition, or
deviation. In the classroom version, "deviation" includes both language mistakes and
straying off-topic. If another participant detects any of these, they can interrupt, gain
a point, and continue the subject. The person speaking at the end of 60 seconds
receives two points.

3. Comedy Improvisation Games: These games involve participants taking part in a

conversation while one of them is secretly assigned a unique role or occupation,
 such as an undercover tax inspector. The others must try to deduce their colleague's
secret role during the conversation.

4. "Fishbowl" Game: Two students engage in a conversation on a topic of their choice.

However, at a predetermined signal, one of them must draw a phrase, question, or
sentence from a fishbowl, which they have written earlier. They must immediately
incorporate the chosen text into the ongoing conversation, making it an amusing
challenge.

Discussion

Discussions in language teaching can take various forms, ranging from highly formal whole-
class debates to informal small-group conversations. Here are some common types of
discussions used in language classrooms:

Buzz Groups (Brainstorming): Buzz groups are informal discussions used for various
purposes. Students may engage in buzz groups to predict the content of a reading text,
share their reactions to it after reading, discuss topics like news broadcasts, or express their
preferences for things like music at a wedding or party. These discussions help get students
thinking and prepare them for more formal tasks, such as prepared talks or debates.

Formal Debates:Formal debates involve students preparing arguments in favor of or against

specific propositions. Panel speakers present well-rehearsed arguments, while the audience
contributes their thoughts on the topic as the debate progresses. Proper preparation is
essential for successful debates, and students can plan their arguments, research
supporting evidence, and practice speeches in groups.

Balloon Debate: The balloon debate is a popular and engaging game where students take
on the roles of real-life or historical figures. They must argue why they should be the sole
survivor in a hot-air balloon scenario. After rounds of arguments and voting, the final survivor
is chosen. Participants can represent specific characters, occupations, age groups, or
societies.

Unplanned Discussions: Unplanned discussions occur spontaneously during lessons. They

are not pre arranged by the teacher but can lead to productive speaking practice.
Encouraging and prompting students to participate in these discussions can be valuable for
language learning.

Reaching a Consensus:Activities that require students to reach a consensus on a specific

decision or choice can stimulate discussions. For example, students may consider a
scenario where an invigilator during a public exam catches a student cheating and must
decide on the appropriate action. Such activities provide a clear purpose for the discussion
and encourage students to engage in meaningful debates.
Prepared talks and presentations

Prepared talks or oral presentations are valuable activities in language teaching, allowing
students to present on a topic of their choice. These presentations differ from spontaneous
conversations and are more "writing-like" in nature due to their prepared nature. To ensure
students benefit from these presentations, several key steps should be followed:

Preparation: Students need adequate time to prepare their talks. Teachers can provide
guidance and assistance during the preparation phase. Encourage students to prepare from
notes rather than reading from a script. Recording the initial version of the presentation and
transcribing it can help students identify areas for improvement.

Rehearsal: Rehearsal is essential for students to build confidence and refine their
presentations. Pair or small group practice can be effective, allowing peers to provide
feedback based on predetermined criteria for evaluating presentations. This peer feedback
can help speakers enhance their content and delivery.

Multimedia Elements: If students plan to incorporate multimedia elements (such as audio,

video, or PowerPoint) into their presentations, teachers should provide support and
guidance. Discussions about the appropriateness of media and how to effectively use them
should take place.

Active Listening: During presentations, it's essential for the audience to actively listen, not
only for their own understanding but also to support the presenter. Teachers can assign
tasks or feedback activities for listeners, such as asking questions or providing specific
feedback based on pre-established criteria.

Feedback: Feedback is crucial for improvement. Feedback can come from the teacher,
peers, or a combination of both. Students who have delivered a presentation should have
the opportunity to analyse their performance and, if possible, repeat the presentation in a
different context, applying lessons learned from the feedback received.

Questionnaires

Questionnaires are a valuable tool in language education as they provide structured

communication exercises that benefit both the questioner and the respondent. These pre-
planned questionnaires ensure that there is meaningful content for both parties to discuss,
contributing to language development. Depending on how the questionnaires are designed,
they can encourage the repetition and practice of specific language patterns.

Students can be encouraged to create questionnaires on a wide range of relevant topics.

Teachers can serve as a resource to assist students in the questionnaire design process.
The information collected through these questionnaires can serve as a foundation for various
language-related activities, including written assignments, group discussions, or prepared
talks.
Questionnaires offer students an opportunity to engage in meaningful communication while
also developing their language skills, making them a versatile and effective tool in language
education.

Simulation and role-play

Simulation and role-play are highly effective techniques in language education that offer
numerous benefits to students. They provide opportunities for students to engage in real-life
scenarios, such as business meetings, interviews, or conversations in various settings, as if
they were participating in these situations in the real world. Students can either act out these
scenarios as themselves or assume different roles and express thoughts and feelings that
may differ from their own.

Simulation and role-play activities can serve various purposes in language learning:

General Oral Fluency: They can be used to enhance overall oral fluency, allowing students
to communicate more freely and naturally.

Specific Language Training: They are particularly valuable for students studying English for
specific purposes (ESP) or business English. In these cases, role-plays can simulate
relevant professional situations, helping students become more comfortable and confident in
those contexts.

For successful simulation and role-play activities, students should be provided with detailed
information about the background and the specific roles they are expected to play. This
information is crucial for them to effectively engage in the scenario. While creativity is
encouraged, having some essential background information is essential to ensure that the
simulation runs smoothly.

Simulations and role-plays are often effective when they require participants to make
decisions. This not only engages students actively but also encourages them to express
their opinions and make choices within the role they are playing.

Simulation and role-play activities offer several advantages:

Motivation: They are enjoyable and motivating for students, making learning more engaging.

Reduced Inhibition: Shy or hesitant students may feel more comfortable expressing
themselves in a role-play scenario, as they can "hide" behind their character and take on a
different persona.

Language Variety: These activities encourage the use of a broader range of language,
enabling students to practice and experiment with various vocabulary and expressions.

Storytelling
Storytelling is an integral part of human communication and plays a significant role in
language learning. People engage in storytelling naturally in their daily lives, sharing
experiences, recounting events, and discussing various topics. This innate human activity
offers numerous advantages for language learners:

Motivation: Storytelling mirrors real-life communication, making it highly motivating for

language learners. When students share personal stories, anecdotes, or discuss events,
they are more engaged and invested in the learning process.

Authentic Communication: Storytelling allows students to engage in authentic, meaningful

communication. It encourages them to express themselves and communicate in a way that
goes beyond mere language practice.

Repetition and Skill Development: One of the most valuable aspects of storytelling is the
repetition of stories. People often retell their favourite anecdotes and experiences, improving
their storytelling skills each time. Repetition is a key component of successful language
learning (see 3.1.3). Therefore, storytelling provides an ideal platform for practising language
skills and refining one's ability to express ideas clearly.

4. **Cultural and Social Context:** Stories often contain cultural references and insights into
the social context in which they occur. By sharing stories, students can learn about the
cultural and social aspects of the language they are studying. This provides a deeper
understanding of the language and its usage.

Storytelling can take various forms in language learning, from sharing personal experiences
to discussing works of fiction, historical events, or cultural narratives. The process of
storytelling not only enhances language skills but also fosters creativity, critical thinking, and
empathy as students delve into the characters, settings, and emotions within stories.

In language classrooms, teachers can encourage storytelling by creating opportunities for

students to share their experiences, discuss narratives from literature or history, and create
their own stories. This practice allows students to become better communicators and more
confident language users while enjoying the engaging and interactive nature of storytelling.

Making recordings
Using video and audio recording in the language learning process is a dynamic and
engaging way to develop students' language skills and multimedia proficiency. These
activities encourage cooperative learning, provide a platform for a variety of language skills,
and offer opportunities for sharing the final products with a wider audience. Here are some
points to consider regarding the use of video and audio recording in language classes:

News Bulletins: Creating news bulletins is an excellent way to improve language skills and
familiarise students with the format and language patterns commonly found in news
broadcasts. This activity can be tailored to current events or adapted to historical or fictional
events. Analysing existing news broadcasts helps students understand the language specific
to this genre.

Script Writing: Encourage students to write scripts for their news bulletins, political
broadcasts, advertisements, or role-plays. This task promotes language production,
creativity, and collaboration. Assistance and guidance from the teacher are crucial during
this stage to ensure clarity and accuracy in the scripts.

Production Roles: Assign different roles to students during the filming process, such as
camera operators, script supervisors, newsreaders, or actors. Diversifying responsibilities
allows students to actively engage in the recording process and develop a variety of skills.

Feedback and Improvement: After recording, have the class watch the different broadcasts
and provide feedback and suggestions. Feedback is an essential part of the learning
process, helping students identify areas for improvement. Encourage students to refine their
recordings based on the feedback received.
Editing Skills: Depending on the students' expertise and the available resources, consider
teaching basic video and audio editing skills. Editing allows students to enhance the quality
of their recordings and fine-tune the final product.

Literature Adaptations: In addition to news broadcasts, encourage students to adapt literary

works, excerpts from novels, or coursebook dialogues into short films. This approach
deepens their understanding of the text and encourages creativity in interpreting and
visualising the content.

Motivation and Engagement: The use of video and audio recording can be highly motivating
for students. It allows them to see tangible outcomes of their language learning efforts, and
sharing their recordings online can further enhance motivation.

Multimedia Skills: Integrating multimedia skills, such as video and audio recording and
editing, into language learning provides students with valuable digital literacy skills, which
are increasingly important in the modern world.

Getting everyone involved

Ensuring that all students actively participate in the video recording process is essential for
fostering a collaborative and inclusive learning environment. Here are some strategies to
prevent any students from being left out during video production:

Group Work: If you have access to multiple video cameras, divide the class into smaller
groups. This way, each group can work on a separate project, and every student can have a
role to perform. Group projects encourage students to collaborate and contribute to the final
product.

Collaborative Decision-Making: Involve all students in the decision-making process for video
production. Emphasise that roles, such as actors, camera operators, and directors, should
not be assigned until the last moment. Allow students to discuss and decide who will take on
which roles collectively. This approach promotes teamwork and shared responsibility.

Assigning Various Roles: Emulate the structure of a real film crew by assigning a variety of
roles. Roles may include the clapperboard operator, script consultant, lighting specialist, and
costume manager. This ensures that there are multiple tasks to be performed, giving every
student an opportunity to participate in a meaningful way.
Rotation: Encourage students to rotate roles for different projects. For example, if one
student serves as the camera operator for one project, they can take on a different role, such
as actor or scriptwriter, for the next project. This rotation allows students to gain experience
in various aspects of video production.

Incorporate Feedback Sessions: After each video project, organise feedback sessions where
students discuss what went well and what could be improved. This encourages active
participation and constructive engagement from all students.

Encourage Contribution from All Roles: Make it clear that every role, no matter how small or
specific, is valuable to the success of the project. Each student's contribution, whether in
script editing, lighting adjustments, or costume selection, plays a crucial part in creating a
polished final video.

Flexible Roles:Encourage flexibility in roles by allowing students to take on different

responsibilities throughout the video production process. This flexibility ensures that students
experience various aspects of video-making and keeps their engagement levels high.