b. E.

coli
Genetic Engineering 1 - Produce diesel fuel

Engineering Plants
- Direct modification of an organism’s genome which is a list of - Consider world hunger
specific traits (genes) stored in the DNA - Insecticide pollution
- Changing the genome enables engineers to give desirable - Weather problems
organisms
- Organisms created by genetic engineering are called GMO crop prod in the US (2010)
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) a. Soybeans (93%)
Example: b. Cotton (93%)
Bacteria for human insulin c. Corn (86%)
- Bacteria multiplies fast so its desirable to use this d. May isa pa dko alam (95%)

Engineering Techniques Banana Vaccines

1. Artificial Selection - Contain virus proteins that triggers immune response against
- It is done to indirectly manipulate genes focusing specific pathogens
on the physical traits Venomous Cabbage
a. Selective - Scorpion are injected to prevent insects
- Desired characteristics are mated
Example: Reasons to Genetically Modify
Race horses 1. Plants
b. Hybridization - Insect resistant
- Two individuals with unlike - Herbicide resistant
characteristics are crossed to produce - Drought/freeze resistant
the best in both organisms - Disease resistant
Example: - Higher yield
Mule = F horse + M donkey - Faster growth
Liger = F tiger + M lion - Improved nutrition
Zebroid or Zonkey = F donkey + M - Longer shelf life
horse Examples:
c. Inbreeding a. hybrid lilies
- Breeding organisms that are genetically b. sweet corn
similar to maintain desired traits found in c. Meyer lemon tree = mandarin + lemon
pure dog breeds. d. Hybrid Maize
2. Cloning e. Better boy tomatoes
3. Gene Splicing 2. Engineering Animals
4. Gel electrophoresis - Prevent extinction
- Analyzing DNA - Bioluminescent for:
- Protein tracking
Human Inbreeding - Disease detection using bioluminescent
- First-generation inbred individuals are likely to show physical imaging (BLI) to identify different types
and health defects, including of cells
a. Lower intelligent quotient levels - Novelty pets (Glofish are available now)
b. Reduced fertility both litter size and spern viability
c. Increase genetic disorders Examples:
a. Fast Growing Salmon
GMO History b. Less Smelly Cows
1973 c. Web Producing Goats = Goat + Spider
- First GM bacteria - Production of spider silk in
1974 goat milk
- GM mice
1982 GMO Concerns
- 1st commercial development of GMOs (insulin producing - Risk to human health; unsafe to eat
bacteria) - Harm to environment and wildlife
1994 - Increased pesticides and herbicide use
- Began to sell GM food - Farmers’ health
2003 - Seed and pollen drift
- Began to sell GMOs as pets (glofish) - Creation of herbicide-resistant seeds

GMO Process
- All genetic changes affect the protein synthesis of the
organism Genetic engineering 2
- By changing which proteins are produced, genetic engineers
can affect the overall traits of the organism
- involves the use of molecular techniques to modify the traits
Different Methods of Genetic Modification of a target organism.
1. Inserting new genetic material randomly or in targeted - Introduction of new traits into an organism as to
locations. enhancement of present traits by increasing the expression
2. Direct replacement of genes of the desired gene or by disrupting the inhibition of the
3. Removal of genes desired genes’ expression.
4. Mutation of existing genes
CLASSICAL BREEDING
GMO Bacteria - considered as the traditional way of genetic engineering
- Most common GMOs - which practices the mating of organisms with desirable
- Simple structure permits easy manipulation of their DNA qualities
- Production of hydrocarbons (plastics and fuels) which are
usually found in fossil fuels RECOMBINANT DNA (rDNA)
a. Cyanobacteria - a modern technique of genetic engineering
- Produce plastic (polyethylene) and fuel - Joining together of DNA molecules from two different
(butanol) species
 - Recombined DNA molecule is inserted into a host organism
to produce new genetic combinations that are of value to
science, medicine, agriculture, and industry.
GENERAL OUTLINE OF rDNA:
1. Cutting or cleavage of DNA
- Restriction enzymes (REs) = molecular scissors
- Cut the DNA at specific target
- overhangs of the donor DNA (gene of
interest) will be paired with other
overhangs (vector DNA).
2. Selection of an appropriate vector or vehicle which would
propagate the recombinant DNA
- Plasmids
- most used vectors
- Not part of the main cellular genome
- Carry genes that provide the host cell
with useful properties such as drug
resistance, mating ability, and toxins
production.
- Small enough to be conveniently
manipulated experimentally and carry
extra DNA.
3. Ligation (join together) of the gene of interest
- Resulting molecule is called recombinant DNA.
- It is recombinant in the sense that it is composed
of DNA from two different sources.
- DNA ligase = glue
4. Transfer of the recombinant plasmid into a host cell.
5. Selection process
- To screen which cell actually contain the gene of
interest
- Next step after cloning id to find and isolate tha
clone
6. Sequencing of gene to find the primary structure of the
protein
- nucleotide sequence
- the most fundamental level of
knowledge of a gene or genome.
- blueprint that contains the instructions
for building an organism
- no understanding of genetic function or
evolution could be complete without
obtaining this information.
PROCESS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
1. Isolate DNA of interest - target DNA
2. Cut DNA with restriction endonucleases
3. Conbie target and vector DNA
4. Introduce recombined molecule into host cell
APPLICATION OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
1. Preparation of gene maps.
- revealing details of various infections, diseases
such as "inborn errors of metabolism."
2. Finding out the complete nucleotide sequence of genome of
an organism and identification of genes.
3. Detecting cytogenetic abnormalities e.g. Down's syndrome,
multifactorial disorders, atherosclerosis, coronary artery
disease etc.
4. Preventing various genetic disorders e.g. inherited
hemoglobin disorders, phenylketonuria, retinoblastoma etc.
5. Understand a molecular event is biological processes like
growth, differentiation, ageing etc.
6. Replacement or correction of deleterious mutation by
transfer of clone gene in a patient.
7. Production of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or
transgenic organisms for providing particular product and
nutrient.
8. Gene Therapy
- Removal and replacement of defective genes with
normal healthy functional genes is known as gene
therapy e.g. Sickle cell anaemia, Severe
Combined Immuno-Deficiency (SCID). SCID is
due to a defect in the gene for the enzyme
adenosine deaminase (ADA) in 25 per cent of the
cases.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
- extensive erosion and genetic destruction of plant
Germplasm;
- ecological imbalance; production of monsters;
- production of dangerous toxic chemicals,
- production of highly lethal microbes and their use in
microbiological warfare to kill humans, animals and plants.
Transgenic (GMO) animals: genes inserted into animals so they
produce what humans need.
Genetics
GENETICS
- Branch of biology that deals with heredity and variation of
organisms
CHROMOSOMES
- carry the hereditary information (genes)
- Arrangement of nucleotides in DNA
- DNA -> RNA -> Proteins
- Chromosomes (and genes) occur in pairs =
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
- New combinations of genes occur in sexual reproduction
(fertilization from two parents)
GREGOR MENDEL
- Father of Genetics
- Raised on farm and understood the value of plant breeding
- Entered priesthood at 21 and studied plant breeding in a
monastery in the Czech Republic
- Loved reading natural sciences and was awre of Darwin’s
findings
- Studied the inheritance of traits in pea plants
Mendel’s Peas
- Mendel looked at seven traits or characteristics of pea plants 11. Monohybrid cross
1. Round or wrinkled - a genetic cross involving a single pair of genes
2. Yellow or green (one trait); parents differ by a single trait.
3. Purple or white petals 12. P = Parental generation
4. Inflated or pitched ripe pods F1 = First filial generation; offspring from a genetic cross
5. Green or yellow unripe pods F2 = Second filial generation of genetic cross
6. Arial or terminal flowers 13. Gametes
7. Long or short stems - Reproductive cells produced by sexually
reproducing organisms
Two types:
1. male gametes = sperm
- In plants: contained in pollen
2. Female gametes = eggs
- In plants: contained in ovules
- Ovules contained in carpels

14. Fertilization
- Fusion of egg and sperm
- Self-fertilized = fusion of sperm and egg from
same plant
- Cross fertilized = fusion of egg and sperm from
two different plants (produced by hybrids)

- Mendel was the first biologist to use Mathematics – to

explain his results quantitatively.
- Mendel predicted the concept of genes
- That genes occur in pairs
- That one gene of each pair is
present in the gametes

GENETIC TERMS:
1. Gene
- A unit of heredity; a section of DNA sequence
PUNNETT SQUARE
encoding a single protein
1. "split" the letters of the genotype for each parent & put them
2. Genome
"outside" the p-square
- The entire set of genes in an organism
2. determine the possible genotypes of the offspring by filling in
3. Alleles
the p-square
- Two genes that occupy the same position on
3. summarize results (genotypes & phenotypes of offspring)
homologous chromosomes and that cover the
same trait
P and F1
- Alternate forms of a gene
4. Locus
- A fixed location on a strand of DNA where a gene
or one of its alleles is located.
5. Homozygous
- having identical genes (one from each parent) for
a particular characteristic.
6. Heterozygous
- having two different genes for a particular
characteristic.
7. Dominant
- the allele of a gene that masks or suppresses the
expression of an alternate allele; the trait appears
in the heterozygous condition.
8. Recessive
- an allele that is masked by a dominant allele; does
not appear in the heterozygous condition, only in
homozygous.
9. Genotype
- Genetic makeup of an organism
10. Phenotype
- The physical appearance of an organism
(genotype + environment)
MENDEL’S PRINCIPLE
1. Principle of dominance F2
- One allele masked another, one allele was
dominant over the other in the F1 generation
2. Principle of Segregation
- When gametes are formed, the pairs of hereditary
factors (genes) become separated, so that each
sex cell (egg/sperm) receives only one kind of
gene.
3. Principle of Independent assortment
- “Members of one gene pair segregate
independently from other gene pairs during
gamete formation”
- Genes get shuffled – these many combinations
are one of the advantages of sexual reproduction RELATION OF GENE SEGREGATION TO MEIOSIS
- correlation between the movement of chromosomes in
meiosis and the segregation of alleles that occurs in meiosis

TEST CROSS
- When you have an individual with an unknown genotype,
you do a test cross
- Cross with a homozygous recessive individual

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
- Snapdragon flowers come in many colors
- Genes show incomplete dominance when the
heterozygous phenotype is intermediate.

History of Life on earth

EARTH
- Around 4.6 billion years old
- Inhabitants = living things

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

- Record of life forms and geological events in earth’s history
- Fossils = remnant, impression or trace of an animal of a
past geologic age that has been preserved in earth’s crust
- Scientist (specifically geologist) study the different Earth and
rock formations
- rock that can be divided into horizontal sections/layer (strata)

FOSSIL RECORD
DIHYBRID CROSSES
- the primary source of information about the history of life on
- Involve parents that differ in two genes (two independent
Earth
traits)
- complex of data recorded in fossils worldwide

P and F1
RELATIVE DATING ABSOLUTE DATING

Compare one fossil to another using the radioactive isotopes. It

can give the exact age of the
fossil.
FOUR DIVISION OF GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE III. SILURIAN PERIOD 440-410 MY
- Corals appeared and fish continued to
evolve.
- Vascular plants (has xylem and phloem)
appeared, with special tissues to
circulate water and other materials, they
could grow larger than earlier,
nonvascular plants.
IV. DEVONIAN PERIOD 410-360 MY
- First seed plants evolved.
- Seeds had a protective coat and stored
food to help them survive.
- Fish with lobe fins could breathe air
when they raised their heads above
water. (Amphibians exist)
V. CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD
- Widespread forest of huge plants left
massive deposits of carbon that
eventually turned to coal.
- First amphibians lived on land but went
to water to reproduce
- First reptiles were the first animals that
could reproduce on dry land.
VI. PERMIAN PERIOD 290-245 MY
- All land masses collide, forming
pangaea
- Temperature is extreme, climate is dry
- Plants and animals adapt to dryness by
waxy leaves or leathery skin to prevent
water loss.
- Massive extinction (90%) = PERMIAN
EXTINCTION

b. Mesozoic ERA
- Age of reptiles = era of dinosaurs
I. TRIASSIC PERIOD
- First dinosaurs branched from reptiles
- Huge seed ferns and conifers dominated
- Corals, fish and insects evolve
- Supercontinent pangaea separated into
laurasia and gondwanaland
II. JURASSIC PERIOD
- Golden age of dinosaurs; earliest birds
evolved from reptile ancestors
- Mammals appeared but small in size
- Flowering plants appeared
III. CRETACEOUS PERIOD
- Dinosaurs reached their peak in size
and distribution
- Continents were close to their present
locations by the end of this period
1. Precambrian EON - Dramatic extinction of the dinosaurs
-4.5 million years; about 88% of the Earth’s history. c. Cenozioc ERA
a. Hadean - “Recent life”; stared 65 million years ago and
- The Earth formed started out as a ball of gas and it continues up to present
turn into liquid rock
- Greek = Hades
b. Archean
- Cooling down of rocks
c. Proterozoic
- Rise of primitive organisms like photosynthetic
bacteria.
2. Phanerozoic EON
- Divisions that span time periods of tens to hundreds of
millions of years
- Subdivided into eras
a. Paleozoic ERA
- “ancient or old life”started more than 540 million
years ago.
- Predominant animals or organisms raise
invertebrates. (animals that lack vertebra or
backbone)
- HAS 6 PERIODS
I. CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION = began with a
spectacular burst of new life
- Arthropods, mollusks, the most
remarkable animal in the Cambrian is
the TRILOBITES.
II. ORDOVICIAN PERIOD 505-440 MY
- Ocean filled with invertebrates
- First plant exist = plant colonized land