ADD ITIO N A I ~O S U8TRAC T Jor ~ I

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l e re:: l nll a N, ," I' ~ t (' r E,

Un lver S ld a de Fe d er al de •
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ChIldr e n 's a bl) i t l es i n SCI ) . l nq C\r l thr.lE'L l r: ~rob l e r.ls t,,;, ve

,
b ee n re s ea l- ched lnt e n se l y 1n l h" t!? n (e , G , •

Ca rpenter ~. 11os!? r , 198 ~ : I,ies her , 19 I:J:' ; R Il ey , .:. Helle;- .

1983) _ Thes e studies have wor ~ (? d "" i th clc;ss~flcatio ll s ~ .

_ .I.

prob lem s into additlon and su bt r a c t lo r. fro m

,
, of the e xpe rim e n ter--t h~t 1 '5 •
•
consi dEr'" i r.g to:

numeri cal calculus that le ads

,

quite interesting results, - a ..

which show 'c'•. '- proble ms i nvcl ..... l ng

,
same numerical calculus ma v• have - al....ier
I
.. . dif i e r-e,-,t Deorees G~

d i fficult y . conclu sicr, f,- nln these . . . = .........

Gr 0:..="'-'
,
,
,
•
( 1982) and Riley, Greeno ..
~, Hell e ,- (1983) have suggested tha~

children need to form thr-ee basic types of schemas representing

,
•
,
• •
addition' and subtraction problems ::..n ,o r-aer- to become able
,
a:lO
•
mature problem solver-s. The evid ence clearl y s uppor-~ s the n~ed
• •

to relate diverse
, conceptual schem as to the •
solutian # of the
,
,
different typ es of addition and subtr a c t ion word problems,

sch emas proposed by Gre e no and hi s co - wo,- I: e:-,; refe r essen tloal I v

to what Vergnaud ( 1982) ha s t ermed t.he

,

1 • e. , the re p res e nt ation . -

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-
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handle the relationships involved 1n the ,'\

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stll l rem al rlS as to tlow/ ,-e latlon al C i', ,l c u l us b2comt:?s
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wIth num erical calculus. If d i st 1 r,ct " on : s r.G ... ~

considered, some unwarranted

, be ,
fil2C E

aboul chIld
, r en' s concopts of c.-,cidl to; on and

Carp nter ~loser (1 '18:2) , for C' } : CJ (Jq :, ] I ' . ct ll ,c.. l u d G ll . ~4 l "c ; •• l d ~ '-I'

,
ha e a re aso nably unIfIed concep1.. c'
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chi ldren hav e several independent cGnce~ts

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of su btractlGn ' -
,, f-' •
,
•
20-21) . While Carpenter & shO v) that - ·r .. 1 ~-.-­
Moser's young ,-, ,,, ~"""C::.,

use different · counting strategies to solve WE cd!l

•

•
subtraction problems , th eir d ata do not SllOl'J t hat thesE' cr,i 1 '::-2 ..

.:onc eiv e of the problems as subtra ctio rl problems . • •

l-~:len ... ...., .... I ,~. 1,..1
' ~ - ' '~
-
•

children solve word problems, th ey often do use

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•
•
schoo l-ta ught r eprese rlt ations but I C. sur - '- tu CD Llritlli~ _
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thev, are su<:c essfu l , it

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1 ·5 not po ssible to k n Ot-) whet her -;:r,e y . . .-.-. .....,
.... ~ : . t::" '-'
•
•
I
the notion of addition ana •
subtra.: ti~n '
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~
, , the ::.ame wav, c<- =- -=--d:...t'-",
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•

•
do or even
•
if the y used t hese notion s ~l a ll .

This study searches for children's categorization of

•
• •
problems into addition and subtraction. It IS assumed, as In
•

most. · previ DUS studies, that children beain to for-m - addition 0-~d
.. ,

,
- •

subtrac tion concepts before ent erinq- school t .r.roug,lI t n eli

•

inte rpretation of d a ily-l i fe situations and natural• 1 a n qLlaae used

•
• - -
in these situ a t i ons . However, daily and mathematical con<:e pts of
• •

addition and subtracti,on are most cEI- tainly not ider.tlccl.

•
•
Chil dren"s daily concepts of addition, for example, may ha ve 25 ~
•
•
definin g feature the 1n c· fl\ ounts--·i . e . , Chll die:-. i.le;l
•
•
think that addition co rres ponos to In ",,: hi ch

• • •
ori ginal quantity is incl~eased--and com prlse as rep:'"'"ese nL ~L.1o n 5
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•
•
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natur al l anguage words l 1 ke rec e ived, got, b aue.;-.

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' Child re n 's concept~ of sut Lracl:.iorl . - - ..... .
• ~C'"
..- ~
1.. ...... , _

the reduction of qu a nti tie s , which 1 "• .• ~rl j"". o '(.ura.l

language by ' ~ord s 1 i I:e so ld, l os l . . I - -

1_='- -
~ C' • . ••
• v
•

conce pts d o n ot c or respond to thCl ~a t. h etnc.'l i ce, l conc c::o p'l:,; ;-,ecess :·.r;

for choosing the approp ria te nu mer ic al calculus vJ h en 5cl \.' 1;-' 0•
•

addition and subtraction problems . I'll 5 si nq- 2.dde r.cI

•
•
•
min uend problems •
comprl. se the no t ions of
•
lncre CiSE e nd
•
reduction •
l.n amount, respectivel y , ", n d ·I:.hei r co r-res pcndl ng
•
•
• •
v erbal repre sentat ions but are sol ved through L _
.Lhp r,Utiler
•
lca l '

•
calculus wh ich reoresents
•
the •
lnver se of t.he e vents In

sit uation . A mlss lng

• •
a dd e nd prob lem--e . g ., 7 dolls,•

she got some from her father and nOI~ she ha s 9;

g~t?--is solved through th e nUlnerical c dl cu l us 9 - ~1 b ut __

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~.l.
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also be solve d as 7 + a = 9 , a solution wh lch reflects the events ,

•
•
ano possibly a daily conception of addition. Comparison and
•
•
•

par.t-whole problems fit neither the concept of addition nor

of subtraction if addition and subtractio n are defined

-~
. _ _- - - - - - - -_ _ _ _~~I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- - - -_ _ _ _~~

way outlined above. When young chlldr En. solve compar-1 50 n •

-n-'
co, u
•
•

part-whole problems , they

•
may obtain th e sol ution throuqh
- other

means . which ar~ independent of the conc e pts of addltlo., -- d

<> I ,
•
r
•
•
subtr.a c t ion, e. g . , through manipUlatio n OT" s ome repre5ent~ti~n cf
•
•
,
the sets and counting . When childr en enl : ~r school ""nd ...., P
_ c. • - -r,

symbols and procedures for num e rica l calcu lu s , th ev• at- e 1 ....' I'. ;:.
- '1 ••..,
• •• •
'1:.0 attach th e new symbols to theil~ Dl'in concepts of ' O~ l- '~r
c........ ...... 1....4 '.... I a ne

subtr acti on, which may sti 11 not COl" resoond

, t o t he
•

mathematical concept . 1'1.. b ec om es P D~~~ll; J e i... h e l, t o ti C. E ch -:.

•
•

categorize problems into a ddition/ 5Llb'Lri ~ Llon problc~_ -r '

'=' I ..... ~- ~ . . . -
obtaln a descrl ption of t il e d efi'l i n g iea'L ure s

cat e gori s . This study att C? mpLc:d •

;:0 ol.Jl2 1 r , -.... h.1 ...~
,-". - c.,;.,
-.... ~.:..

c la ss ific a tion s of word p,- oblem s in 'Lu ;'l Gdl1. i u n an d sub t r .:. ct;or. ~ .
•
•
asking them to enter the appropriat ~ orJE'ration into ~ c~lcu!acor
•
• •
or bv• asking what ' was the appropi- i ate op21-at io n c •. f;::e r
•
already sol ved the pro b le m.
, •

•
•

, Method ' •
•

110 Brazi I ian pre-school q •- =~

•
~ "'E' chl l dr2 ."
•
• •
ranglng 1 01 age from 6 to 8 year-s ., t'llC'iE inte~-vie~'1ed lndi .... iduoll;.-

and asked to
•
solve word p roblelliS f G 1 1 0;..0..; 2 .~ g

•
conditions. Problems had either sm all or
, , -large nu.moer=, - .,•
~
~

to mak e th e use of in f ormal, coun 'Ll ll Y str· .'.Ii..c;gies Easier ( sn.c.l~·

. numers) or harder (larger numbers). The small-numbers condition

was crossed with two

• - I
types of problem
•

solving situation, or

without a calculator; all large-number problems were solved with .

•
•

the help of a calculator in order to avoid computation errors and

obtain the classification of problen ls into numeric al operatio;,

types . •
By avoiding computational errors, problem

becomes reduced to the question of Cll oosin g the numerical c~lc~lu5

• ,
from certain relational calculus. F' r eSE'n ta t 1 on OT prot-I e m=. ...
. . -.3 --
-

oral only for

•
ha.lf of th e children anc both oral -. -- ~,

the' other half. Order of problems was r&ndom for E2C h Chlld ,
,

Problems we,-e" of varied type=:s accordlna- -,-.--,

,=:
,

•
 cl aSS 1 {i catl ons contain,: cJ In til ' 11 ler- at Ul- e . ' I he y vI ere d £' ::. 1 .:: I I c. ::
-
to evaluat di ffe l- lOt -- -
addition ar d s ubtt-<:Ictio n, ,~it h Lhl' (oj 1 OWl rig CO '• 1 tr _ ....
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into th desiqn : addition ilncJ ,,- cb 1 r_ ~-

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perfectly the dally concepts hypu tr,£?tl cally - ;. t -,

c;t _ \-,' . e
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young children vs . problem s 1n

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l: h (? nUIl,eri cal cal~ulu :, •, = -
the inv erse of the e ven t 's In
' tl: , e , Sl t U Lt I I on
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_ eGL'
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' ~.GrC :J~2",=
=
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In which the larger nu mber prec eded tl,e smaller problem:; \.-.:1-;: ;'
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the oppo site or d er ; (3 ) camp 0. 1'" 1 :; CJ :-\ pro ble ms P ...

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,- - -
c:t.:;'
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, tradition al way (e . g . , t'1.o,ry ha s :< Inun,.') c ornp ~\I- i son p r oL! =- :1, :'

which sugge st an i ncre ase or a r eduction In amount ( e . o . •, - If "'~1-_ ,

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,

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gave , x away;
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l't Mary were to h ~ve x more) ;, (4 ) P c.. .L. _
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'h~'-
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problems ~~soci ated wit h change vs . sta tic ones.

,

•
Analysis of re su lt s consi der-eci both the CQil' 2ctnc-ss aT-

the solution and t he classificatio n of pr- oblems . ..

~lnC2
'
SiT,o.ll

number proble ms were more likely to be solve d through chirdr~n's

,

counting routines, children were allowed to enter the opera-;:la ~

,

in the cal culat o r after giving the i r answer if they 5 0 d~ sirej :

, ,
,
In this case, the operation treated
,
,
classifij:a ti on a -posteriori, ' not par t of problem solvir-Io .
,-
' contrast, in order to solve l arge nu mber problems
,

of a calculator, child ~en h ave to be ~ ble to choose the <Tr-.- - C'.-,

l - "-' " ..... '-

operation. Responses in both situatlons were considered cO '--e-- j, '- ' -

if they v-Jer e numericall y correc t an d ob taIned t o-- - C ',-

,I, ....I I .
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- ~,

c~lculation
.L ... _ __
process which reflected sound re asOnlrto ., ~
even L""-' ..... _ '
~,"

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"so und r easo ning" did not a lw ays mea n the same cr,oi cE --,
- '
,

, ,
,
 ,

operation a s th e adult's.
, A f/ILSSIr. g-ct.dd end problC?ITo, fo ,- e ,: an'01e .
was consid red as correctly solve d ~ t :"'J ClS s o l ved t ~-~'J ~
...... f'­,
. .......
-
proper addI t Ion or subtraction .

Resul t s
,

With respect to percentages of c orrect re5;J o " s es .

, .
repli cate typical findin gs on additio n l subtractioG prooLem5 .
•
Children's cla ssification o-r• p:--ob le ms I nto addltlcn

subtraction often followed the n atural language u~Ed -- ,

, ~­
'- -
,

problem and not the adult classificati on . t·~l. ssi ;-, 0

-
,
problems, for e >: ampl e , even th ou9 h solved correct. b v,
,

appro}: i mat el y ~/
, -
'
...:...
.
'-' of all childr en small n~unbE,S ..
•
classi fied as additio n. and not problems b ,v '

,
approximatel y, 2/-::, of th e chi ldren . This everyd ay cG~ceptiGn
,
cf
, ,

addition when appl ied tc l&r ge num be:--s resulted in approx imate ly
,
the same rate of classification resp onses but a very differen t
, ,

rate ' of correct responses--appro x imat ely 1/4. ·

,

, Part-whole questions were often rephrased by childrer< . ,-,

•
~

order to, fit their conc e pts of addi tion ,

a nd. s ubt.r-actlonj
,

children talked . about putting the par t s to g et her, . in the •

OT

additi on, and s etting asi~e the part, in the c ase of subtraction

problems . Success rat es fo r thes e pr' obl ems and appr Cpt" .
•
a~2

•
c lass ification a.ccor di ng to nume ric al c a.1 c u i us

related for la rge number pr oblems . ,

vJi t h n
I - 'y .'e"-'~
•
.-..j ~ . ..

some _ . . . . ... - ,
...1.._
children COLlI d find t he rioh t a n S\'liEr
- 1 I I , '-'I ,010 ..
,

, ,
strate gies without being a bl e to ind icate th e proper otJ t:.:"'r~" ,,-' I
="- '_ "_ '_ •

,
 ,
• COOlp Clrison
• • varLed In SL,cce~s rate s .
• •
assoclated wlth :...JUCC 'S~ raLc:s In pr ub J c,:.' -
• • !:'I _

comparativ e used.
the comparative term was "m ol' Ci If and t II t:..1!; E. .-'.
. :::.. ~ .
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) .... - .....-
. . t'-:

"}e ' --" ~~ , 1 -:-_ r. .I~t -· --__ .u,="

.. - r-~-
1 ·..J ·_ '....: -
_
•
he re that th e comparatives a nd la b E ls for the corr E SpO:1c: ;-' 9
•
oper ation are the same wo r d i j) PortUG Ul"'!SI.? ( mais/menos; . T_
. 1'
r- - - - -
'--' .... '.e'
• -
-
langua ges; this finding rnay not be r ep lice<te d .
,
Equal ize problem s wel-e more often

. subtra~tion than addition problems . Some

rephrased the problems and obtained a b ett er fit of the verbo.!

form to the idea of reducing quantiti es (e . g . , "1 ta ke

chi ldren already got s,,,i ngs" ) . l'Jh en the sm~ller numbEr
•
........ ,
preceded the larger, over BOY. of the children T"
SL' .......... ·. - 0 _ ..... 0G
- .j~ _ ~-e
'- ..
•

lager numbe r from the smaller in the calculator . Ch11dr-en may

•
not consider order of numbers important In subtraction perhaps
•
because ; there
•
1.S only one possibl e order in informal, dail y
• '. •

subtraction. Few children remarked that the order of nu mbe rs had

•
•

•
1:.0 be inverted and two decided to chonqe
- the oper-.atloli to
•
• •
•
addition after -having entered a mInus l.n the r=-lcu~..... 0
_~ -..~o-
.'- I _
•

One child, after enter ing the computa tion B5 -

. --'
0-::
...• e ::pected tw'

obtain a zero and

, concluded that the ca.1 cuI ator Jas b r-o k en •.•• 1-.. ...... r:
.. .. I IC' I

an 8 appeared on the display!

• ,
Conclu sions
•

While teachers often be 1 i I:?V2 that h·1 '

C.l.&.orEi'l
, •
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•• I •....
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dlrfic ult y In Sl'J lvin o
- c ~r. C • ~I '--- -
- ' - ' ::. ':-

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the corre ct. opel- <:\ Clan .• . I"" EtSGitl- ell pr- s •
: I c. .. ' t '
,
-or , I ~ .• - .- -. -- ,
;.' -

' h a'L'
~ ever, -
VOlll"lq
, - chi ld:"e n arC? qL 11 p C ;;....- p· I--·... =
c..·IJ ~ c.e --·-1--- -
'- ' _ I ..~ _ _.

so lving many woro

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con tr ac; .;. L "
•
•
•
•
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:-1ec es s aril y so. .....

:=- ~ .
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'C H' =- = -- --
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the ty p e suggeste d by Grl:~e n o ( 1 9 8::-:) r; nd C, ;

1 \ ...
le !",
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,•• --- -- -- ---
,
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( 1983) a nd h a nd le rel at i ve ly we l l t h Co:' - L,. i...

L-c' 1..I.. '-- I -
.....::;.
-
~.
,-
-
,
\~ork out t he n umerical a n s wer s In
,
lr,formal I. < . .... f.:. _ ,-••, •

d a i ly ma th e matical
, conc epts a re no t ~
~'-,
• • .:. .L
I ,
-,- .'-' ',,,,-. -- .... - - ..
:=.L.I_" _ · J
,
- "
•
•

-in wh ich the num e ri cal ca lcu l us

,
' ,'- -'I.
f~I I',-, ~
,. =- .._'.J,
. - ,-.:=0
_ 1_-
. -l..
.- _ •, ...... ,.,- =- - -..:--
LJ J . ,_
- ~ _

nor a r e 'C nev•, ,

su f 1'
L
I
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C ~ e n..:
,
-c-
o 0
,
h i~ n d l 1
,.... .. ,
I
-
, ".
- -" I"' C'~
: . !...'· Ie:'
-
....... ,
I , • •""1-"~ 1
. ... ' - - " - 1-
..... , .. - - ,
'. 'r, • '
~ 0
,
0 --
o co .-
• ...., '!;: -
i ni'ormal cou n ting metho ds cu mb e r some .. De s c r i b i r .o- C '- - •· '_, c "
o I "
,--- - - --
, ,
p ro bl e m sol v in g s c n em e.s 1 5 ve r y i rnpL);.-t3.nt 0, t ' ~·
-, - - - -
-....J '"""'I'"
. / 0';::' -_ 0 •' -,I r;
_ ' - •
--
-
the wh ol e story
,
01' p t--ob 1 !:.~ rn s ol '...· i ng .
C :"
.. .~~.
- C ' )f ' ....
) 1- .I c., .- ,
r - •

,
- V=c..:.. L ~ ;o· ,,..:..=~
-- -
,

coordin a t~d with th e ,

must sti 11 be ..:r;;-o,c e D~
,
:; . -,
~

,
. . . . .
"-
a r l '-llme'C.1C operations Tor
,
•
ch i ld r en '--
Lw b eC Cl me m a ~ U ~2
,
;'I
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- -....., ' :;..: -
r-

solvers. ,
,
•
• •