International Journal of Injury Control and Safety

Promotion

ISSN: 1745-7300 (Print) 1745-7319 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/nics20

Virtual reality simulation for construction safety

promotion

Dong Zhao & Jason Lucas

To cite this article: Dong Zhao & Jason Lucas (2015) Virtual reality simulation for construction
safety promotion, International Journal of Injury Control and Safety Promotion, 22:1, 57-67,
DOI: 10.1080/17457300.2013.861853

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17457300.2013.861853

Published online: 28 Jan 2014.

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International Journal of Injury Control and Safety Promotion, 2015
Vol. 22, No. 1, 57–67, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17457300.2013.861853

Virtual reality simulation for construction safety promotion

a
Dong Zhao * and Jason Lucasb
a
Department of Building Construction, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA;
b
Department of Construction Science and Management, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
(Received 12 September 2013; accepted 23 October 2013)

Safety is a critical issue for the construction industry. Literature argues that human error contributes to more than half of
occupational incidents and could be directly impacted by effective training programs. This paper reviews the current safety
training status in the US construction industry. Results from the review evidence the gap between the status and industry
expectation on safety. To narrow this gap, this paper demonstrates the development and utilisation of a training program
that is based on virtual reality (VR) simulation. The VR-based safety training program can offer a safe working
environment where users can effectively rehearse tasks with electrical hazards and ultimately promote their abilities for
electrical hazard cognition and intervention. Its visualisation and simulation can also remove the training barriers caused
by electricity’s features of invisibility and dangerousness.
Keywords: safety; simulation; virtual reality; construction

1. Introduction Colligan, 2001) and can consequently help save large

Electrical safety is an important issue for the construction
industry and requires consistent efforts to be endeavoured
worldwide. This safety issue is particularly critical for the
US construction industry as its workers encountered the
47.8% of all nationwide electrical fatalities on average
from 2003 to 2011 (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013).
These fatalities include both electricity-related workers
and non-electricity-related workers. In 2011, the electro-
cution rate for US construction was calculated as 12.2 per
1 million full-time construction workers. This was nine
times higher than the average rate across all US industries.
According to the National Institute of Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH), the average electrocution loss
(including medical expenses and estimated future work
loss) has reached $948,844 per fatal case, ranking the
highest in the US construction industry (NIOSH, 2006).
Human error has been considered as one determining
factor in up to 80% of occupational accidents in the avia-
tion, petrochemical, health care, construction, mining, and
nuclear power industries (Garrett & Teizer, 2009;
Rasmussen, 1997). This impact of human error, especially
the unawareness and misjudgement of a hazardous situa-
tion, contributes to at least 49% of construction accidents
(Haslam et al., 2005). Errors cannot be eliminated, but
opportunities for error can be reduced by appropriate and
effective training (Reason, 2000; Strauch, 2002). Effec-
tive worker safety training programs are the most direct
approach to mitigate human errors (Goldenhar, Moran, &
costs by preventing accidents (Neville, 1998).
Virtual reality (VR) simulation has been used with
varied successes for firefighter training (Cha, Han, Lee, &
Choi, 2012), mine safety training (Lucas & Thabet,
2008), safe procedure in surgical training (Lewis, Aggar-
wal, Rajaretnam, Grantcharov, & Darzi, 2011), security in
refineries (Haller, Kurka, Volkert, & Wagner, 1999), safe
equipment operation (Hollands, Denby, Brooks, &
Burton, 2000), and civil engineering education (Sampaio,
Ferreira, Ros
ario, & Martins, 2010). Specifically within
the construction industry, VR technology has been used
for constructability analysis of precast concrete structural
analysis application development (Setareh, Bowman, &
Kalita, 2005), electrical design and installation (Sulbaran
& Shiratuddin, 2006), and construction prototyping
(Huang, Kong, Guo, Baldwin, & Li, 2007). However, few
known research applied VR to the electrical safety train-
ing in the construction industry. A VR simulation-based
safety training program can offer an engaging and interac-
tive tool for training all construction workers on electrical
hazards and safe working procedures. The purpose of this
paper is to review the current electrical safety training
practices in the construction industry through an analysis
of regulations, current industrial safety training methods,
and fatal accident investigations. Based on the review, a
VR training program is prototyped and an application
example is presented. Effective training styles, user learn-
ing behaviour, safe training environment, and safety

*Corresponding author. Email: dongz@vt.edu

Ó 2014 Taylor & Francis

58 D. Zhao and J. Lucas
culture are also discussed to support the usability of the
VR-based training approach within the construction
industry.
2. Current construction safety training review
2.1. Regulations
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) sets forth requirements for training of all workers
that work around or with electricity. They also have
requirements of training for construction workers. The
fulfilment of those requirements is the responsibility of
each individual employer. Some employers use structured
safety programs and materials developed by media com-
panies that specialise in training, while others conduct
their own training. The important part of any training pro-
gram is that it meets the minimum requirements set forth
by OSHA and that the developed training program ade-
quately trains each employee so they can safely perform
their tasks on the jobsite.
OSHA’s Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part
1926 Subpart K covers electrical safety and health regula-
tions for the construction industry. The requirements
found in CFR 1926 Subpart K as well as referenced stand-
ards 1910.333 and 1910.334 are designed to offer an
understanding to workers of the relevant safety practices
to use and hazards that exist while working on or near
electrical equipment or electrical distribution systems.
CFR 29 Part 1910.332 (OSHA, 2012) requires training
for all employees who may be expected to face risk of
injury due to electric shock or other electrical hazards.
The training should allow each worker to gain an under-
standing of safety-related working practices around elec-
tricity. This includes training for workers who are not
working directly on electrical equipment but who are
required to work in close proximity to electrical equip-
ment and electrical distribution systems. These individu-
als are responsible for identifying hazards that exist
within the work environment and the proper correspond-
ing practices. The OSHA regulations cover areas of regu-
lations for protection of the employees, exposed energised
equipment that may put other workers at risk, and working
with cords and cables including those attached to electri-
cal hand tools. Within these regulations are procedures for
de-energising equipment, tagging equipment, identifying
environmental ware on equipment, as well as the use of
temporary electrical equipment, batteries, and battery
charging.
OSHA regulations form the minimum requirement of
what to include in an electrical safety program. To ensure
up-to-date information on electrical safety, employers,
professional organisations, and OSHA recommend further
compliance with two consensus standards. Those stand-
ards are the National Electrical Code (NFPA 70) and the
Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace (NFPA
70E). NFPA 70 also deals with design and installation of
electrical equipment while NFPA 70E deals with working
on electrical equipment (Kolak, 2007). NFPA 70E
includes safe work practices to anticipate, recognise, and
impede electrical hazards, with a goal to eliminate electri-
cal injury by mitigating casual or inadvertent exposure to
electrical hazards.
2.2. Industrial safety training practices
Proper safety training is the responsibility of employers.
Both general contractors and specialty contractors are
required to ensure that their workers are properly trained
(Pace & Rojas, 2007). General contractors typically
approach electrical safety practices for their workforce as
part of the overall training orientation for new hires or
within their overall company safety program. Some com-
panies require new workers to participate in an OSHA 30-
hour outreach training program for general safety training
and use the electrical module of that training class to
inform their employees of general electrical safety and
hazard awareness. Some companies require their employ-
ees to participate in an electrical safe work practices pro-
gram which is developed based on NFPA 70E to
strengthen the cognition of electrical hazards.
Typical construction safety training methods include
traditional classroom training exercises, on-the-job train-
ing (OJT), and on-site safety meetings.
2.2.1. Classroom training
This classroom training exists in training rooms or train-
ing work stations for new employees. The information is
presented through the use of videos, slideshows, and study
guides. It is reinforced with one-on-one training or com-
puter training. Quizzes are commonly used and supplied
within a training packet to ensure comprehension of the
covered material by the trainees. Materials, printed
guides, and online courses are available that comply with
OSHA’s training requirements. Such printed guides on
electrical safety compliance training are available through
the National Safety Council (2013), NIOSH, OSHA, and
other organisations. These resources are a sample of prod-
ucts available to aid in electrical safety training. Compa-
nies may choose to use these resources to aid in their
training needs or customise a training program.
2.2.2. On-the-job training
OJT is a method of teaching skills, knowledge, and com-
petencies that are needed to perform a specific job within
the workplace and work environment. OJT often trains
workers to learn to perform tasks as well as to experience
the safety using the existing tools, machines, documents,
 International Journal of Injury Control and Safety Promotion
and equipment at the actual workplace. OJT trainees are
usually taught by another employee who can competently
perform the job.
2.2.3. Safety meetings
On-site weekly safety meetings or daily safety meetings is
another important type of safety training. During the
safety meetings and orientations different materials
are used for the training of employees that include slide
shows, videos, books, and other handouts. Within these
materials regulations are presented for safe working pro-
cedures and equipment usage. The construction industry
also takes advantage of using case examples of fatality
assessments such as the NIOSH accident cases or the
Mechanical Contractors Association of America (MCAA,
2010) toolbox safety talks. These approaches take advan-
tage of describing a scenario and an action that caused an
accident or fatality. They also discuss the lessons learned
and the proper procedures that should have been followed
to prevent the accidents and properly follow regulations.
Pertaining to training contents, typical structured training
programs cover how electricity works; the use and opera-
tion of fuses, circuit breakers, and grounding of electric-
ity; safe work practices; the use of outlets, plugs, and
extension cords, working with electrical equipment; the
use of ladders around electricity; and treatment of electri-
cal emergencies. Safety professionals emphasise the
importance of proper extension cord use, ensuring that
cords and power tools have the proper ground, and the
use of ground fault circuit interrupters on the worksite
when training general employees. Site superintendents
are trained on temporary power and lighting issues to
ensure that their employees as well as subcontractors and
subcontractor employees are properly installing and
working with temporary electricity. Depending on the
size of the job and company the superintendent or a des-
ignated safety professional is ultimately responsible for
enforcing the company’s safety regulations including the
regulations for using temporary power, electrical tools,
and cords.
2.3. Construction electrocution investigations
Fatalities are the most serious safety failures in the con-
struction industry and analysing these failures and learn-
ing from them has proved to be an effective and helpful
way to diagnose current safety drawbacks. Zhao, Thabet,
McCoy, and Kleiner (2013) examined 132 NIOSH con-
struction electrocution investigation reports ranging from
1989 to 2012 in terms of content and statistical analysis.
In each report, NIOSH provided prevention recommenda-
tions after a complete investigation. These recommenda-
tions were the reflection of accident causes and
imperfection of current safety implementations.
59
Based on the statistical analysis of the NIOSH investi-
gations, they summarised the top three ranked recommen-
dations as follows:
(1) 62.9% of the reports recommended that ‘adequate
safety training and periodic specialised electrical
safety training programs should be implemented
to enhance the electrical hazard cognition and the
avoidance of unsafe conditions in workplace’.
(2) 47.7% recommended to conduct ‘an electrical
hazard survey at jobsite to identify potential elec-
trical hazards and intervention measures before
work’.
(3) 47.7% suggested that well-designed, non-conduc-
tive personal protective equipment (PPE), com-
munication equipment, and supporting equipment
should be provided and enforced to workers in
workplace.
These results indicate that the failure of electrical haz-
ard cognition and the worker’s improper behaviour should
be responsible for most construction electrocutions. Also,
they reflect the criticalness of the role that training plays
in the construction electrical safety. As suggested by
NIOSH, a comprehensive safety and health training pro-
gram in hazard cognition and intervention should be
enforced to enable workers to identify potential hazards
and implement appropriate control measures at the
workplace.
3. VR-based safety training program development
3.1. Purpose justification
According to the prior review, an ideal training program
which is critical to electrical safety in construction should
allow workers to repeatedly practice electricity-related
tasks and to become acquainted to the hazards within the
working environment. However, most of the current train-
ing programs are less capable to effectively meet these
requirements. They are not engaging and may not maxi-
mise knowledge acquisition and retention (Burke et al.,
2006). Appropriate training improvement in occupational
health and safety has been recommended as a necessary
measure in many literatures (Cha et al., 2012; Huang,
Leamon, Courtney, Chen, & DeArmond, 2011; Manca,
Brambilla, & Colombo, 2013; Read, Lenn
e, & Moss,
2012). Also, the invisibility and dangerousness of electri-
cal hazards largely reduce the chance for trainees to rec-
ognise and practice in real life.
The effectiveness of a training program should con-
sider the trainee’s learning behaviour. Adult learners have
been identified as ‘problem centred’ and ‘solution driven’
(Kowalski & Vaught, 2002) and thus the participatory
training has been widely accepted as one of the most
60 D. Zhao and J. Lucas
Figure 1. Pyramid of learning effectiveness, modified from
Edgar (1969).
effective training approaches. Rubinsky and Smith (1973)
found that the experience of their simulated accident was
a better training aid than simply demonstrating it or
describing it, when the criterion of number of ‘accidents’
and retention over time were used. Goldenhar et al.
(2001) claimed that the best way for training and learning
was to do the real thing and to simulate the real tasks to
obtain experience. As shown in Figure 1, the pyramid of
learning effectiveness illustrated a hierarchy of the teach-
ing style and its effectiveness to the trainees (Edgar,
1969). It can be implied that the first-hand experience
from real-life tasks and the contrived experience from rep-
resentative simulations are the most effective learning
styles.
Active and interactive training is often of higher level
of comprehension, while the passive methods of learning
are not as effective, especially for adult learners. Most cur-
rent electrical safety training programs in terms of video
tape, paper-based handouts, or slide shows can hardly
present the electrical hazards vividly to trainees and, on
the other hand, the trainees are not provided enough oppor-
tunity to participate in these activities. In fact, it is believed
that an active and interactive training program can lead to
a better comprehension of training material (Kowalski &
Vaught, 2002). Such participatory training brings a real-
life aspect into the training in an ‘it can happen to you’
scenario and allows the trainees to relate to conditions and
regulations in real-life situations and with a life or death
importance. The best scenario is when people do not have
to consciously think about following safety procedures
because it is second nature to them (Trybus, 2008).
Therefore, the purpose of the VR-based safety training
program is to offer a safe working environment where
employees can effectively rehearse tasks with electrical haz-
ards and ultimately promote their abilities for electrical haz-
ard cognition and intervention. By repeating these tasks in a
simulated virtual world, a real-life aspect is brought into the
training in an ‘it can happen to you’ scenario that allows
the trainees to bridge invisible electrical hazards and real-
life situations. The proposed training program will retain
the benefits from current training methods and mitigate con-
straints with the supplementation of VR’s unique merits
such as the hazard visualisation.
3.2. Training program development procedure
The development procedure of the VR-based safety train-
ing program includes six steps following a consequence
of resources, content, simulation, and the final program
(see Figure 2). Inputs are processed and outputs are pro-
duced circularly on each step.
The six processing steps are listed as follows:
Step 1: Electrical hazard information is extracted from
resources of regulations, industry practices, and electrocu-
tion investigations. A training element inventory is cre-
ated to store the extracted information.
Step 2: Stored hazard information is filtered and categor-
ised though the program structuring process. This process
generates the reorganised training contents in a format of
training element layers (TELs), which is discussed in the
next section.
Step 3: Based on the training contents built up in Step 2, a
pilot training module (Module 1) is prototyped through
three-dimensional (3D) modelling and simulation. A mod-
ule is a simulated virtual work environment in which sev-
eral electrical hazards exist. The piloting process also
confirms the prototype’s functionality.
Step 4: The complete prototype (Module 1) is put into sev-
eral rounds of evaluation and refinement until qualifica-
tion is achieved. During the evaluation, collected
feedback is used to modify the prototype in terms of
usability and information rationality. The final refinement
shall obtain satisfactions in the ease of navigation and
environmental interaction, the completeness of training
elements, and the understandability of information.
Step 5: Based on the finalised prototype (Module 1), more
training modules (Modules 2, 3. . . n) are repeatedly mod-
elled and simulated until the entire program including all
training contents is complete.
Step 6: The complete training program is then sent to
industry for re-evaluation. The program’s technical
usability and training contents are tested as a whole while
the usefulness and effectiveness are the emphases at this
stage. Feedback will also be collected for the improve-
ment and finalisation of the program.
3.3. Training contents structuring
Training contents are built based on the establishment of
the TELs. TELs are a series of layers that incorporate
 International Journal of Injury Control and Safety Promotion
Figure 2. Development of the VR-based safety training program.
specific electrical hazards, control measures, and the
related working environment (see Figure 3). It could be
broken down into layers, axes, and cells. A layer indicates
a construction workplace where featured electrical haz-
ards exist, for example, a highway construction site under
overhead power lines. Layers are designed based on the
retrieved information from regulation requirements (e.g.
NFPA 70E), industrial safety training materials (e.g.
Figure 3. Training element layers.
61
MCAA toolbox safety talks), and construction electrocu-
tion investigation reports.
A layer comprises two crossed axes, the hazard axis
and the task axis. Hazards and tasks in the two axes are
set up based on the previous gathered information and
analysis. For example, these hazards include overhead
power lines, undermined wires, wire extensions, trans-
formers, conductors, panels, powered machinery, equip-
ment, or light fixtures. The tasks include site survey,
construction machine operation, construction material
loading/unloading, equipment installation, or teamwork
coordination. Within a layer, each training element is allo-
cated in the cell at the crossing of the two axes. A layer is
accordingly like a matrix that contains training elements
under a certain work environment. For example, when a
construction labourer is unloading construction materials
(e.g. task 3), he/she is exposed to the hazard of overhead
power lines (e.g. hazard 1). Thus, a crossing between task
3 of unloading materials and hazard 1 of overhead power
lines is marked. A marked crossing indicates the necessity
of training for hazard awareness and control countermeas-
ures. In this way, all the training contents from the train-
ing element inventory are filtered and reorganised into
TELs, storing for further simulation.
The training element is the relative hazard identifica-
tion and intervention measures and could also be viewed
as training objectives or guidelines that the trainee must
62 D. Zhao and J. Lucas
complete. Training elements are organised into four cate-
gories: (1) electricity basics, which includes electricity
fundamentals such as current flow and shock sources; (2)
working around electricity, which relates safety regula-
tions for working around electrical power sources and
what precautions need to be taken; (3) working with elec-
tricity, which includes topics of proper use of temporary
power, extension cords, electric tools, PPE, and identify-
ing equipment decay and environmental deterioration;
and (4) safe emergency response procedures, which
includes proper response procedures to use when attempt-
ing to administer aid to someone who comes in contact
with an electrical hazard. It is to be noticed that not all
training elements shall appear as an interaction in the sce-
nario; rather, only some of them need to show up, allow-
ing the user to be aware of its existence in simulation.
3.4. Modelling and simulation
When the set-up of TELs is completed, training contents
are input into the process of 3D modelling and simulation.
The modelling process includes two separate parts: the
3D object modelling and 3D environment modelling. The
3D objects include buildings, machines, equipment, tools,
materials, electrical components, background settings,
and worker actors. Most of these models, such as a mobile
crane and electricity transmission tower, were created
using Autodesk’s 3ds Max (see Figure 4). 3D environment
modelling includes designs of area terrain, sky clouds, sun
point, wind, rain (if necessary), light layout, landscape, as
well as relative sounds. This modelling process was
implemented in GarageGames’ Torque 3D engine v2.0.
3D objects are modelled for common uses for all mod-
ules while the 3D environment is designed on a layer-
module basis. That means each workplace in a layer
(TEL) is responsible for a unique module and each mod-
ule has a unique virtual environment. The 3D environment
in each module was designed separately based on its
respective training elements.
Simulation is programmed within the Torque 3D
engine using Cþþ syntax. Prior complete 3D models are
imported into the completed 3D working environment,
the whole of which resulted in a training scenario (see
Figure 5). Each electrical hazard and its responding tasks
were simulated as interactive events through coding
scripts. Scenarios and events were linked by animations.
The training scenarios, including 3D objects and 3D envi-
ronments, and integrated training events are together com-
prised of a training module.
Simulation is processed on a module basis. TELs are
respectively simulated into VR modules. Each module
represents a major hazardous environment that could lead
to electrocution. The working conditions, electrical haz-
ards that workers are exposed to, and related work tasks
are simulated in modules. The VR simulations allow the
users to recognise the hazards, identify them, and inter-
vene in a simulated virtual world. Trainees may partici-
pate in the safety working tasks, feel the hazards as well
as their crucial outcome of failures (e.g. getting electro-
cuted), and hopefully transfer this experience to their real-
life working environment. Also, users are allowed to
choose the specific module that is related to their daily
work to get trained. This provides users the opportunity to
choose which scenarios they would like to complete and
allows them to be trained for designated working tasks or
work environments. Additionally, modules are expand-
able once more training content (TEL) is added.
The simulation storybook is presented through a thread
of independent interactive events. These events are trig-
gered by various approaches depending on the desired
reaction. For example, a touch approach is used to trigger
the training event for safety emergency responses on
‘contact power line’ when the user touches a power line.
Another example is when arriving in the area of a torn-
down power line, a proximity approach will trigger the
event dealing with broken power lines emergency. These
events are a mixture of animations and text used to present
training contents to the user. All information-expressing
methods used in the scenario are aimed at increasing the
learning efficiency and enhancing the training effective-
ness. The learning efficiency and training effectiveness will
be studied through evaluation processes in future research.
3.5. Simulation module example
The module example uses the overhead power lines in a
heavy and civil project workplace as one of the designated
hazards. The environment is simulated as a road construc-
tion site in daytime in an open-air area. The working site
is in close proximity to overhead power lines. Related
electrical hazards (e.g. transmission towers and power
lines) and construction machines (e.g. a mobile crane) are
also included for training purposes. In this scenario, the
user has free navigational control of the environment in
either first-person or third-person view (see Figure 6). The
view-switching function is intended to avoid dead angles
or prevent the user from being stuck in an area of the vir-
tual environment. Also the view-switching function pro-
vides the user with a more engaged visual feeling and
allows them to explore situations from multiple angles for
a better spatial understanding.
When the user walks through the scenario following
instructions, a variety of hazard triggers will be touched
and then the preprogrammed reactions will be activated as
responses. For example, when the user goes close to the
10-foot distance line indicating the distance from the
overhead power lines’ upright projection allowed by
safety regulations, the training element of ‘safe working
distance and clearance’ will be triggered and instructions
will appear in the text panel explaining this safety
 International Journal of Injury Control and Safety Promotion 63

Figure 4. 3D object modelling of (a) mobile crane and (b) transmission tower.

regulation. Clues are used throughout the scenario to
attract the user and lead them to finish all the interactive
training events within the simulated scenario. For exam-
ple, a warning sign is set near a high-voltage power tower.
The flashing light on the sign is the clue drawing the user
to approach and read it. When the user stops at the sign,
the information of training element ‘voltage checking’
will show up in the text panel explaining the importance
of understanding the voltage of the line when working in
close proximity to the line. Learning occurs unconsciously
and impresses the trainee in a positive manner through
these training simulations. In addition, the triggers are
repeatable so that the reactions may be repeated to rein-
force the training contents.
At the completion of all training events in the instruc-
tion mode, the user will be sent to complete a connected
task-based testing scenario. This task-based training sec-
tion randomly selects tasks and related hazards from the
64 D. Zhao and J. Lucas
Figure 5. Virtual simulation interface.
previously completed instructive scenario. The user is
required to complete a mission of one task or several
tasks. At this time, no clues and reminders will be pre-
sented and the user must identify and control the electrical
hazards by their own knowledge and cautions. Also, their
performance will be measured in a format of health point
(HP). Any missing reaction or failure will cause a deduc-
tion from the initiate 100 HP. The number of deduction is
based on the potential damage that failure may lead to.
For example, if the user walks into the dangerous distance
to energised high-voltage power lines without using any
appropriate PPE, no warning or alert will be shown this
time but instead an electric arc will be animated and the
actor’s HP will directly decrease to 0, indicating the fail-
ure of mission with being electrocuted.
4. Discussions
4.1. Safe training environment
There are several ways to make learning more active and
engaging. Training methods like OJT, full-scale training
mock-ups, and the use of VR simulation offer more
engagement. However, due to the dangerous characteris-
tics of electricity, the OJT and mock-ups can hardly allow
trainees to fully rehearse electricity-related tasks, access
all electrical hazards, and experience possible consequen-
ces in real life. As a result, the effectiveness of these train-
ing methods might be limited. In contrast, a VR-based
training method is not constrained by these limits and
instead can provide trainees full participatory experience
without the safety risk from electricity.
VR technology provides a new perspective of safety
training for dangerous hazards. A VR-based training pro-
gram has the ability to create a problem-based learning
exercise in an environment that replicates the trainees’
actual working environment (McAlpine & Stothard,
2003). It offers an interactive, active, and cognitive learn-
ing-by-doing experience for users (Stanney & Zyda,
2002) but without the concern for ‘real-world
repercussions’ (Eschenbrenner, Nah, & Siau, 2008).
4.2. Safety culture
The safety culture in construction is a powerful force that
can shape a company’s overall effectiveness and long-
term success to its safety commitment. Culture affects vir-
tually all aspects of organisational life in people’s interac-
tion, work performance, and even the decision-making
(Yitmen, 2007). The safety culture is a key to a successful
construction project once it is so broadly and universally
adopted that every worker realises that all work activities
are to be safe ones.
Some recent social science research argues culture
rather than only a set of beliefs, attitudes, and values but
as the ‘whole way of life’ (Manseau & Shields, 2005). It
is the set of predispositions which guide improvisations in
daily routines as the habitus and this habitus is practical
knowledge as repeated routines (Bourdieu, 2003). In this
regard, the safety culture in construction could be viewed
as the habitus of safe practices by all project and company
personnel in their daily routines. Rather than values, atti-
tudes, and beliefs, the safety culture can be observed,
 International Journal of Injury Control and Safety Promotion 65

Figure 6. Navigation mode of (a) first-person view and (b) third-person view.

documented, and fostered once treated as a habitus of rou-
tines. It becomes more amenable to research and practice.
Cutting-edge technologies can be adopted to build this
habitus as well as the safety culture. In fact, in the con-
struction trade, many technologies are there to improve
health and increase safety in a technical perspective but
overlook the integration of the safety culture. The rapid
adoption of ergonomic health and safety approaches is not
aided by the importance of habitus and the extent to which
even obvious innovations such as safety harnesses may
discomfort, impede, and slow down individual workers
(Manseau & Shields, 2005). Therefore, an effective safety
promotion in construction should be based on safety cul-
ture fostering and meanwhile engage advanced technolo-
gies into this safety habitus.
Integrating modern information technology, such as
the VR simulation, into the construction workers’ safe
practical routines can be an attempt to enhance safety
culture. A VR-based training program allows construc-
tion workers to familiarise the common hazards, includ-
ing electrical hazard, and mock up relevant prevention
practices without real-injury repercussions. It may not
only improve trainees’ awareness of potential risks in the
real working environment, but also unconsciously
66 D. Zhao and J. Lucas
influence their routine behaviours which lead to the
safety culture.
4.3. Pertinence and flexibility
One issue with the development of a safety training pro-
gram is that many hazards are task or environmental
based. Not every employee would need to be familiar
with every hazard or environment. The VR training pro-
gram allows for selecting specific tasks and working envi-
ronments to customise worker training to their needs. This
will provide training on pertinent tasks and materials and
prevent an overload of information to the user, most of
which they may not come in contact with. The modules
developed within the TELs allow for this sorting of rele-
vant hazard training and scenarios.
Another issue is the flexibility of the module organisa-
tion due to which new elements can be added for specific
companies and not all training scenarios need to be devel-
oped at once. Scenarios can be selected and filtered within
a system based upon the training elements that the user
needs to learn to complete their assigned tasks in the real
environments.
4.4. Assumption and limitation
The primary purpose of this concept paper is to introduce
the VR-based simulation approach for construction safety
training. It assumes an emphasis on analysing theoretic
necessity and presenting development process, though a
prototype was demonstrated. In this regard, limitation
exists as a lack of long-term effectiveness evaluation.
Further, this limitation will be supplemented in future
studies with a combination of users’ safety performance
observations.
5. Conclusion and future work
The electrical safety issue is critical for the construction
industry, particularly in the USA. Every year lives are lost
due to accidents that could have been prevented with
proper training and awareness of workplace hazards. Elec-
trical hazards are the cause of approximately a quarter of
all deaths within the US construction industry. Between
2003 and 2011, construction workers averagely encoun-
tered the 47.8% of all nationwide electrical fatalities. Over
half of the relevant fatal or non-fatal accidents are ascribed
to human errors, while the effective training programs are
believed to be the most direct way to mitigate human
errors. This research aimed to probe the electrical safety
issue and provide a solution beginning at reviewing current
electrical safety training practices in construction. The pro-
posed safety training program which utilises VR simula-
tion for training and testing workers can benefit to reduce
accidents and fatalities caused due to electrocution.
VR simulations have been used with success for safety
training within the construction industry. A VR-based
safety training program offers an interactive form of train-
ing that allows the user to interact with a simulated 3D
environment. VR may also effectively visualise the invisi-
ble electrical hazards without imperilling workers in real
life. This interactive training allows for a development of
cognitive abilities and awareness that typically improve the
users’ comprehension of training material. It may also con-
tribute to build the safety culture which promotes
construction workers’ safety practical routines. Rather than
a static application, this program can be consistently self-
developed because of its attributes of pertinence and
flexibility.
Long-term observation and assessment is also impor-
tant to the success of a training program especially in
terms of practicality and effectiveness. This will need
industry participation and real users’ safety performance
assessment. Data from both the safety observation record
and questionnaires will be collected from the industry
users. Analyses for long-term performance validation and
assessment will need to be conducted in future work.
Also, more training modules are to be simulated once
more validated training elements are generalised.
Enlarging the hazard coverage will be another direction of
improvement for the future work.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr Walid Thabet for his advice
on this research.
ORCID
Dong Zhao http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2404-7669
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