FLIGHT CONTROL LAW

A flight control mode or flight control law is a computer software algorithm that
transforms the movement of the yoke or joystick, made by an aircraft pilot, into movements
of the aircraft control surfaces. The control surface movements depend on which of several
modes the flight computer is in. In aircraft in which the flight control system is fly-by-wire,
the movements the pilot makes to the yoke or joystick in the cockpit, to control the flight, are
converted to electronic signals, which are transmitted to the flight control computers that
determine how to move each control surface to provide the aircraft movement the pilot
ordered. There are three different types of loops can be identified to the overall control
architecture, they are;
1. Control Loop
2. Guidance Loop
3. Navigation Loop
Airbus Flight Control Systems:
The design of architecture of airbus flight control laws based on fulfilling two requirements:
i. In the usual operating domain, the normal flight control law shall provide an
instinctive piloting with the same behaviour as a conventional aircraft, as well as an
accurate and comfortable control that is;
o Stability and manoeuvrability
o Homogeneous aircraft response with respect to pilot inputs in the whole normal flight
envelope
o Compensation of aircraft configuration changes
o Minimization of turbulence effect on flight path and bank angle
o Balanced effort in pitch and roll
o Safe behaviour in case of engine asymmetry detection.
In extreme situation, it should provide protection in order to remain in the safe operating
domain and reduce the risk of overcontrolling or over stressing the aircraft while at same time
giving the highest authority to pilot in order to achieve best possible aircraft performance.
i. Normal Law (normal flight envelope)
Flight control Normal Law provides three axis control, flight envelope protection and
manoeuvre load alleviation. Normal Law operates in different modes depending on the stage
of flight. These modes include:
 Ground Mode
 Flight Mode
 Flare Mode
Ground mode
Ground mode is active whilst the aircraft is on the ground. The auto trim feature is
turned off and there is a direct relationship between sidestick deflection and elevator
response. The horizontal stabilizer is automatically set to 4° up but manual settings (e.g. for
centre of gravity) override this setting. Immediately after the wheels leave the ground, flight
mode progressively takes over from ground mode. The reverse occurs after touch down
during the landing phase.
Flight Mode
The flight mode of Normal Law provides five types of protection: pitch attitude, load
factor limitations, high speed, high-AOA and bank angle. In addition, Low Speed Protection
is available in certain phases of flight. Normal Law flight mode is operational from take-off
and remains active until 100 feet above the ground during the landing phase. Failure of
certain systems or multiple failures will result in degradation of Normal Law to Alternate
Law (ALT 1 or ALT2). Unlike conventional controls, in Normal Law flight mode the
sidestick provides a load factor proportional to stick deflection which is independent of
aircraft speed. When the sidestick is neutral in manual flight, the system will maintain a 1g
load factor and the aircraft will remain in level flight with no requirement for the pilot to
change the elevator trim, even during a speed or configuration change. For manual turns up to
33° bank, no sidestick back pressure is required as the system automatically trims the aircraft
to maintain level flight. The system freezes the auto-trim when the angle of attack becomes
excessive, the load factor exceeds 1.3g or when the bank angle exceeds 33°. If these
situations occur as the result of a deliberate manoeuvre, the pilot must apply back pressure on
the sidestick to maintain the selected attitude. In all cases, Load Factor Protection
automatically limits the control inputs so that the aircraft remains within AOM "g"
limitations and Pitch Attitude Protection limits the aircraft attitude to a maximum of 30° nose
up or 15° nose down.
 High Angle of Attack Protection, which protects against stalling and the effects of
winds hear has priority over all other protection functions. The protection engages
when the angle of attack is between α-Port and α-Max and limits the angle of attack
commanded by the pilot's sidestick to α-Max even with full sidestick deflection. If the
autopilot is engaged, it is automatically disengaged with activation of High Angle of
Attack Protection. α-Floor (automatic application of TOGA thrust) may be activated
by the auto thrust system if engagement parameters are met.
 High Speed Protection will engage to automatically recover from high speed upset.
There are two speed limitations for high altitude aircraft, VMO (Velocity Maximum
Operational) and MMO (Mach Maximum Operational). The two speeds are the same
at approximately 31,000 feet, below which overspeed is determined by VMO and
above 31,000 feet by MMO. Activation of High-Speed Protection results in reducing
the positive spiral static stability of the aircraft from its normal 33° to 0° which means
that if the pilot releases the sidestick, the aircraft will roll to a wings level attitude. It
also reduces the sidestick nose down authority and applies a permanent nose up order
to help reduce speed and recovery to normal flight. Activation of High-Speed
Protection results in automatic autopilot disengagement. Once the speed has
decreased below VMO/MMO, Normal Law is restored and the autopilot can be re-
engaged.
 Bank Angle Protection limits the maximum bank angle of the aircraft. Within the
normal flight envelope, if the sidestick is released when bank angle is above 33°, the
bank angle is automatically reduced to 33°. With full sidestick deflection, the
maximum achievable bank angle is 67°. If either Angle of Attack or High-Speed
 Protection are active, full sidestick deflection will result in a maximum bank angle of
45°. With High Speed Protection active, release of the sidestick will cause the aircraft
to return to a wings level (0° bank) attitude.
 Low Energy Protection is also available while in Normal Law when the aircraft is
between 100' and 2000' with flaps set at config 2 or greater. The low energy warning
is computed by the PRIMs using parameters of configuration, airspeed deceleration
rate and flight path angle. The aural warning "Speed Speed Speed" indicates to the
pilot that aircraft energy has become too low and that power must be added to recover
a positive flight path angle. α-Floor protection is available and will engage if pilot
actions are inappropriate or insufficient.
Flare mode
This mode is automatically engaged when the radar altimeter indicates 100 feet above
ground and provides for a direct sidestick to elevator relationship. At 50 feet the aircraft trims
the nose slightly down requiring the pilot to progressively move the sidestick rearward
emulating a conventional control input for landing.
ii. Alternate Law ()
Alternate Law is generally for situations where there has been a double failure of a
system which results in either lack of redundancy or integrity of the protections found in
normal law. Auto pilot and auto thrust are still available. Alternate Law is subdivided into
two somewhat different configurations dependent upon the specific failure(s). The ground
mode and flare modes for Alternate Law are identical to those modes for Normal Law.
 Alternate Law 1 (ALT1) combines Normal Law lateral mode with Alternate Law
pitch modes. Low Energy Protection is replaced by Low Speed Stability meaning that
the aircraft no longer has automatic stall protection. At low speed, a nose down
demand is introduced based on IAS (instead of AOA) and Alternate Law changes to
Direct Law. In addition, an audio "STALL" warning is introduced. α-Floor protection
is not available so conventional pilot stall recovery action is required.
 Load Factor and Bank Angle Protections are retained. High Speed and High Angle of
Attack Protections enter Alternate Law mode. Pitch Attitude Protection is lost.
 ALT1 control law degradation will result from some faults in the horizontal stabilizer,
a single elevator fault, loss of a yaw-damper actuator, loss of slat or flap position
sensors or a single air data reference fault. Dependent upon the failure, autopilot may
not be available.
 In Alternate Law 2 (ALT2), Normal Law lateral mode is lost and is replaced by roll
Direct Law and yaw Alternate Law. Pitch mode is in Alternate Law. Load factor
protection is retained. In addition to those protections lost in ALT1 (Pitch Attitude
and Low Energy Protection), Bank Angle Protection is also lost. In some failure
cases, High Angle of Attack and High-speed Protections will also be lost.
 As is the case with ALT1, some failure cases that result in ALT2 will also cause the
autopilot to disconnect. ALT2 is entered when both engines flame out, with faults in
two inertial or two air-data reference units, with faults to all spoilers, certain aileron
faults or with a pedal transducers fault.
iii. Direct Law
 In Direct Law (DIR), lateral modes are the same as ALT2; that is roll Direct Law and yaw
Alternate Law. Pitch control degrades to Direct Law and automatic trim is inoperative
requiring stab trim to be adjusted manually by the pilot. Control surface motion is directly
related to the sidestick motion. In Direct Law, autopilot function is always lost. DIR is
entered if there is failure of all three inertial reference units or all three primary flight
computers, faults in both elevators or flame out of both engines concurrent with loss of
PRIM.
 WIND TUNNEL TESTING
Wind tunnel testing plays a crucial role in advancing aviation by allowing engineers and
researchers to study the aerodynamic behaviour of aircraft models. Let's explore the different
types of wind tunnel tests:

1. Subsonic Wind Tunnels (Mach < 0.8):

o These tunnels operate at speeds below the speed of sound.
o Ideal for testing subsonic aircraft, such as commercial airliners and general aviation
planes.
o Compressibility effects are negligible in subsonic flows.
o Engineers can measure forces and moments directly on the model using force
balances.
2. Transonic Wind Tunnels (0.8 < Mach < 1.2):
o Designed for testing aircraft that experience both subsonic and supersonic flow
conditions.
o Compressibility effects become significant in this regime.
o Researchers study phenomena like shock waves and boundary layer interactions.
o Wind tunnel instrumentation provides valuable data on aerodynamic forces.
3. Supersonic Wind Tunnels (1.2 < Mach < 5.0):
o Used for testing supersonic aircraft, missiles, and high-speed vehicles.
o Compressibility effects are critical.
o The throat of the nozzle determines the Mach number in the test section.
o Engineers investigate shock waves, wave drag, and other supersonic phenomena.
4. Hypersonic Wind Tunnels (Mach > 5.0):
o These tunnels simulate extreme hypersonic conditions.
o Used for testing re-entry vehicles, spaceplanes, and scramjets.
o Additional considerations include chemical state of the gas.
o Shock tubes (a variation of blowdown tunnels) are often used for hypersonic testing.
Three main criteria that are commonly used to define wind tunnels are maximum achievable
speed, flow uniformity, and turbulence level. Therefore, the design aim of a wind tunnel, in
general, is to get a controlled flow in the test chamber, achieving the necessary flow
performance and quality parameters.
There are five basic parts of the wind tunnel: The Settling Chamber, the Contraction Cone,
the Test Section, the Diffuser, and the Drive Section. During a test, the test object is placed in
the test section of the tunnel, and the air is made to flow past it. Various types of
instrumentation are used to determine the forces on the model.
In some wind tunnel tests, the aerodynamic forces and moments on the model are measured
directly. The model is mounted in the tunnel on a special machine called a force balance. The
output from the balance is a signal that is related to the forces and moments on the model.
Balances can be used to measure both the lift and drag forces. The balance must be calibrated
against a known value of the force before, and sometimes during, the test. Force
measurements usually require some data reduction or post-test processing to account for
Reynolds number or Mach number effects on the model during testing. Four air properties
affect the way it flows by an object: viscosity, density, compressibility, and temperature.
With the model mounted on a force balance, lift, drag, lateral forces, yaw, roll, and pitching
moments over a range of angles of attack can be measured.
Types of Wind Tunnels
Wind tunnels range in size and complexity depending on what they’re being used for. For
example, a simple wind tunnel might look like a tunnel with one closed end and a fan
mounted on one side. More advanced wind tunnels may use exhaust blowers to create more
turbulence and can be so complex that they include working cabins within the tunnel. The air
inside a wind tunnel is pulled through by some type of fan, typically mounted at one end of
the tunnel, which is called an intake. At the other end of the tunnel there is either an
observation window or a test section where measurements are taken. Many modern tunnels
have observation windows throughout their length so that measurements can be taken from
different positions within the tunnel.
1. Closed return wind tunnel
2. Blown down wind tunnel
3. Atmospheric entry wind tunnel
4. High enthalpy wind tunnel
5. Continuous flow wind tunnel
 Open circuit wind tunnel for subsonic testing
 Open circuit wind tunnel for supersonic testing
 Closed circuit wind tunnel
Data Acquisition and Sensors
Engineers use a number of instruments while testing an airplane in a wind tunnel including
pressure sensors and airspeed probes that give feedback on speeds, engine power settings, etc.
Wind tunnels are used by engineers to test forces against wind pressure. Making precise
measurements of pressures and forces on the test model allows the engineer to predict them
on the full-scale aircraft and improve its aerodynamic performance. In order to perform these
measurements, engineers must use sensors and signal conditioning equipment in order to
store and analyse the data. In other words, modern data acquisition systems are needed. For
wind tunnel testing engineers usually use dynamic sensors such as:
 Pressure sensors
 Microphones
 Force sensors
 Strain gauges
Wind tunnel sensors are organized by speed classification. From subsonic use of condenser
microphones for acoustic holography to shock sensors for studying boundary layer transition
of hypersonic re-entry vehicles. Sensors are usually installed inside the wind tunnels or close
to the model itself.
Signal Conditioning
Signal conditioning is an electronic circuit that manipulates a signal in a way that prepares it
for the next stage of processing. Many applications involve environmental or mechanical
measurement from sensors, such as temperature and vibration. These sensors require signal
conditioning before a data acquisition device can effectively and accurately measure the
signal. Once the signal is correctly conditioned it is ready to be stored by the data acquisition
system and prepared for analysis using signal processing software.
 SCALING OF FLYING MODELS
Scaled-model flight test provides a way to evaluate flying qualities and validate flight
control system considering above unsteady aerodynamic effects in the preliminary design
phase of aircraft. The scaled-model has the advantages of small size, light weight, and low
manufacture cost. Evaluating the flying qualities characteristics of full-size aircraft
preliminarily through scaled-model flight test will reduce the technical risks of aircraft
development. Model scale ratios mean Model scales are sized in ratios Scaled model
aircraft in 1:48, 1:72, 1:100, 1:130, 1:144, 1:150, 1:200, 1:250, 1:300 and 1:400 scales.
The numbers on the left side of the colon or slash represent the size of the original
object, usually 1. In other words, 1= full size. After the colon or slash, the number will
reflect the model’s size. For example, if the model were 1:1 scale, the model would be
an exact replica of the original model. However, if the model scale were 1:24, the model
would be 24 times smaller than the original object. The biggest planes we offer are the
1:48 scales, whilst the 1:400 scale models are the smallest in the collection. It's
important to note that models of the same scale may vary in size as the scale refers to
the ratio of the original aircraft to the model. Therefore, the Boeing 777 and Airbus
A320 will differ in size even if they're both in the same model scale. The bigger the
parts of your model aircraft are, the easier they are to handle physically, which is
especially useful if you’re building and painting the model yourself. Bigger aircraft
allow for more artistic interpretation and make it easier to refine the smaller details.
However, be aware that it does make them trickier to display. The great thing about
smaller aircraft models is that finding places to display them is much less challenging.
However, they are fiddlier to handle and are sometimes unable to showcase the
exquisite designs of the original aircraft.

i. Model Aircraft Scale 1:48

1:48 scale models are 48 times smaller than the original aircraft. With a diverse range of
model aircraft here at these 1:48 scale aircraft are the perfect size for displaying,
especially as models of this scale usually come with a display stand so that you can
really showcase their excellence.
ii. Model Aircraft Scale 1:72
1:72 model aircraft are 72 times smaller than the size of the actual aeroplane. Most of
1:72 models come mounted on a stand displaying flying configurations. These aircraft
models don’t take up too much room, which is ideal if you have a display cupboard or
are limited in space. 1:72 is one of the most popular model aircraft scales, allowing
large planes to be recreated in a smaller space with realistic details.
iii. Model Aircraft Scale in 1:100
Range of 1:100 model aircraft means that the real aircraft is 100 times bigger than the
model. This size is perfect if you have many aircraft models on display already or want
to showcase them in a smaller space.
iv. Model Aircraft Scale 1:144
Stunning range of 1:144 scale model aircraft is another popular scale and is perfect for
all model collectors, whether you're just starting or have a vast collection. The 1:144
scale is commonly used for larger aircraft, making them the perfect size to display on a
shelf or desk.
v. Model Aircraft Scale 1:400
The 1:400 scale represents the model being 400 times smaller than the actual aircraft. It
is ideal for replicating the largest aircraft types so you can enjoy the intricate details of
larger planes like Boeings on a model scale and display them without worrying about
them taking up excessive space.
 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has become instrumental in the design and
analysis of products in the aerospace industry as well as in surface transportation industries
including automobiles, trucks, and boats. There are two primary ways in which CFD is used
in the aerospace industry. The predominant use is in the analysis phase. Given a geometry
definition, flow conditions, and appropriate boundary conditions, the task is to compute the
flow field, with sufficient accuracy in the region close to the aircraft (wake-vortex
applications require special provisions to maintain the accuracy much farther downstream).
An appropriate physical model is used. This can and does span the gamut from lifting line
and vortex lattice methods to panel methods (potential flow) and Euler equations coupled
with Integral Boundary-Layer (IBL) formulations, Reynolds-Averaged Naiver-Stokes
(RANS) formulations which require turbulence to be modelled, to Direct Numerical
Simulation (DNS) methods in which all the scales of turbulent motion are captured. It is
essential for users to choose the most appropriate level of sophistication and cost for each
application. Except for panel methods that are classified as boundary integral methods, all the
other formulations require a grid to be generated that fills the space occupied by the fluid.
And herein there are multiple choices as well: single-structured grid for simple topologies,
multi-block structured, overset and unstructured. We believe automatic grid adaptation, or
‘self-gridding,’ is a very powerful ingredient of CFD; however, it has proven very difficult,
and even the talent in government, industry, and academia and the competition amongst CFD
code suppliers have had only modest levels of success.
The Partial Differential Equations (PDEs) governing fluid flow are then discretised
using any of a variety of methods: finite volume, finite elements (continuous and
discontinuous) with many choices available for numerical flux approximations. That such a
variety of methods exists in CFD, with no clear winners and losers, after so many years of
research is surprising indeed; this is not the case in other fields such as structural mechanics.
At this point, one also settles on the order of accuracy desired, second order being the most
common, although methods possessing higher-order accuracy are becoming more practical.
After discretising the time derivative, the last aspect is to solve the non-linear system of
equations to obtain a flow field at every time step or the steady flow field at all the discrete
locations (grid points). Once the flow field is computed, one is able to extract global
quantities of interest, such as forces and moments as well as local flow-field characteristics
such as skin friction, velocity and temperature profiles, surface pressures, entropy, and total
pressure. A flow field, even steady, computed with CFD is rich in information. Typically,
however, much of it is ignored in favour of near-field quantities such as surface pressures,
and force and moment coefficients.
Regardless of the level of approximation chosen for the flow model, when a reliable
solver capability has been achieved, it is possible to automate many of the phases of CFD.
Much of the internal work in industry consists of building and validating tools built around
solvers from various sources. This is particularly true with respect to geometry and grid
generation if geometric complexity is restricted (e.g., cruise wing, body, nacelle, horizontal
and vertical tail in the case of commercial aircraft). With sufficient speed and automation and
some established level of confidence in CFD, it is then possible to generate an entire
aerodynamic database, for certification and possibly to drive flight simulators. This is already
being done to a degree with full-potential and Euler equations.
PRINCIPAL CHALLENGES TO QUALITY AND RELIABILITY IN
CFD
 Accuracy of geometry
 Surface and volume gridding
 Accuracy of numerical solution
 Multiple solutions
 Slowing growth of computing power
 Accuracy of physical modelling
 Integration with other disciplines
 FLIGHT TESTING AND VALIDATIONS
1. FLIGHT TESTING
Flight testing is the ultimate assessment method. It is however the most risky and
expensive part of the assessment and thus preferably all significant short comings of the
aircraft should be ironed out before. It is further the only kind of assessment that takes place
in the real-world environment including pilot, atmospheric disturbance, load factors etc.
Flight test are performed for a variety of reasons like example, model validation, system
tests, stores integration, man machine interface tests, aerodynamic data gathering and
envelope expansion. Most of the flight testing is covered by carefree handling clearance.
Aerodynamic data gathering especially with envelope expansion requires some additional
support for increased safety.
During aerodynamic data gathering and especially envelope expansion flight testing,
critical parameters like angle of attack, surface deflection, etc are monitored versus the
corresponding values obtained during the non-linear simulation. If a significant discrepancy
occurs this indicates that the models used for clearance may deviate from reality and the
flight test has to be aborted for further evaluation.

a. Post Flight Analysis for Aerodynamic Dataset Validation.

After aerodynamic data gathering flight test, the recorded flight test data can be used
to validate the aerodynamic model. In this process the same models used to derive the
clearance, that is to predict the aircraft response are utilized to calculate or repredict a specific
flight test manoeuvre during post flight analysis and compare it with the actual flight test
data.

2. VALIDATIONS
To perform the different types of analysis described above a wide set of validation means
are available from non-real time simulators to flight test aircraft. All these simulators use the
same flight mechanics and load models when available but representiveness off the system
parts such as, actuators, sensors, and computers are different. At start, the validation process
uses a non-real time fully simulated aircraft models that is non-real time desk top simulators.
A typical example,
o MATLAB: Simulink model provided support to the benchmark definition
o ATOSMA: dedicated to handling quality studies and manual laws
o SIMPA: dedicated to autopilot law validation
o ATLAS: dedicated to load computation
 HANDLING /FLYING QUALITIES
The flying qualities of an airplane is related to the stability and control characteristics and can
be defined as those stability and control characteristics are important in forming the pilot’s
impression of the airplane. The pilot forms a subjective opinion about the case of difficulty of
controlling the airplane in the steady and manoeuvring flight. In addition to the longitudinal
dynamics, the pilot’s impression of the airplane is influenced by the feel of the airplane,
which is provided by the stick force and stick force gradients. The Department of Defence
and Federal Aviation Administration has a list of specification dealing with airplane flying
qualities. These requirements are used by the procuring and regulatory agencies to determine
whether an airplane is acceptable for certification. The purpose of the requirements is to
ensure that the airplane has flying qualities that place no limitation in the vehicle’s flight
safety nor restrict the ability of airplane to perform its intended mission.
Classification of Airplanes
CLASS 1 Small Fight Airplanes Such as light utility,
CLASS 2
CLASS 3
CLASS 4
 Only analysis inputs are available. To perform piloting tasks, we must introduce a
pilot model that will control the different axes for given objectives on speed, sideslip
angle, heading, flight path angle. etc. Later in validation process a real time desktop
simulator is used. This consist of an interactive fully simulated aircraft model. It provides
simplified control devices to that design engine can interact with the simulator and
perform some basic sceneries which are more complex than single objective control.
We then switch to advanced simulators. This simulator contains a true representation
of cockpit and piloting devices. We can here begin to involve flight test pilots in the
validation process. Those simulators also progressively introduce real system in loop that
is, on board computer hydraulic system, electrical system, actuators etc. The last
validation means is of course the most representative the real aircraft