Tempo Terms

In the 17th and 18th centuries, as the connotations of meter for tempo weakened, Italian tempo markings became
increasingly significant for determining the pace of a piece. Tempo terms also indicated mood or style, and not only
speed. This dualism caused disagreements and variations in interpretation among composers and regions.
- “As the connotations of metre for tempo weakened during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the Italian directions
which began increasingly often to be affixed to the beginning of a piece became more important for determining tempo.
Concomitantly with the proliferation of these terms however a lack of consensus about their meaning also became more
apparent. Although there was no significant disagreement about the fact that ‘adagio’ ‘andante’ ‘allegro’ and ‘presto’
indicated a series of progressively faster speeds that pieces marked ‘largo’ ‘lento’ ‘grave’ and ‘larghetto’ were all slower
than those marked ‘andante’ or that ‘adagissimo’ implied a slower tempo than ‘adagio’ and ‘prestissimo’ a faster one than
‘presto’ there were many points of detail upon which composers' practices were at odds with one another.”

 Adagio, Andante, Allegro, Presto, represented progressively faster speeds. However, their precise meaning,
especially in relation to each other, was subject to varying interpretations.

 Largo, Lento, Grave, Larghetto: These tempi were generally slower than Andante. Terms like Adagissimo (slower
than Adagio) and Prestissimo (faster than Presto) indicated relative speeds.

Additionally, two early 19th-century British writers provided lists of tempo terms with their own interpretations,
highlighting the lack of consensus. For example, Crotch considered Adagio slower than Largo, while Jousse, following
the Italian tradition, had a different ordering.

- “A particular problem with these terms was that they served a dual purpose; for composers especially in the
earlier part of the period tended to use them as much to prescribe the appropriate mood or style as to designate
the tempo.”

The late 18th and early 19th centuries were transitional periods, with tempo terms being used more as expressions of
character than indicators of speed. Löhlein, consequently, categorized tempo terms primarily based on their emotional
character rather than speed, although a partial hierarchy of speed was implied. Other contemporary composers and
theorists had differing views on tempo terms, leading to a lack of standardized interpretation.

-“In this respect as in many others the last decades of the eighteenth century and the first of the nineteenth were a
period of transition. More conservative writers in the 1770s could still adhere primarily to the notion of these
conventional Italian words as terms of expression with a secondary connotation for tempo.”

The slow tempo indications ( Grave, Adagio, Largo, and Lento, ) were often linked with expressions of sadness or
solemnity. Their exact speed was interpreted variably, sometimes related more to performance style than to precise tempo.
-“Grave Adagio Largo Lento: Löhlein who included these terms under the general category ‘Sadness’ (along with
‘larghetto’ though he had listed this earlier in the category of ‘calmness’) made no significant reference to tempo
in his description of the performance style appropriate to them.”

Problematic terminology:

- Larghetto: Generally understood to be faster than Largo, but its relation to other terms like Adagio and
Andante was subject to disagreement.
 - Lento: Its meaning ranged from very slow to moderately slow, and it was sometimes used as a qualifier to
other terms.
- Andante and Andantino: Their relationship was particularly complex, with some viewing Andantino as faster
and others as slower than Andante. This confusion was due to Andante's intermediate placement between
slow and fast tempos.

-“Larghetto’ was almost universally understood to indicate a faster tempo than ‘largo’. (An exception to this
occurs in Gesualdo Lanza's The Elements of Singing where for semiquavers in larghetto a pendulum length of 7
inches is suggested and for largo 6 inches i.e. larghetto MM c.144 and largo MM c.152).But beyond that there
was considerable disagreement about its relation to the other terms.”

“The significance of ‘lento’ was equally unclear. Some eighteenth-century writers such as Quantz Löhlein and E.
Miller seem to have regarded it as indicating a very slow tempo; many failed to include it in their lists while
others such as Crotch and Campagnoli saw it as meaning only moderately slow.”

Composers like Beethoven, Weber, Spohr, Berlioz, Wagner, Verdi, Dvořák used tempo markings according to their
personal interpretation, demonstrating the complexity and lack of uniformity in applying these terms.

“Metronome marks in Verdi's music suggest that, like Spohr and a number of other composers, he used ‘largo’ for pieces
in which longer note values predominated (generally crotchets and quavers and occasionally quaver triplets) while he
reserved ‘adagio’ for pieces with more florid melodic lines often including semiquavers; in common time both markings
are most often used in the range 50–66 with occasional pieces outside that range.”

Focusing on performance style, the text discusses how different tempo terms were related to emotional states or character
of the piece, like 'allegro furioso' for brisk and vehement music, or 'andante' for a walking pace. This approach highlighted
the ambiguity and complexity in the use of these terms.

Source 1

1
Clive Brown – Tempo Terms - Performance Practice 1750-1900
 Tempo Markings
Tempo in music is not just a technical detail but also an expressive tool. It highlights that composers like Weber,
Mendelssohn, and Marx, while aware of the limitations of metronomes, believed that the right tempo is crucial for the
effective realization of music. However, they also recognized that a performer needs to internalize and feel the
appropriateness of the tempo.- "This was a view evidently shared by Marx's friend (at that time) Mendelssohn; for it was
reported of Mendelssohn that ‘though in playing he never varied the tempo when once taken he did not always take a
movement at the same pace but changed it as his mood was at the time’. This may well go some way towards explaining
Mendelssohn’s relative reluctance to supply metronome marks for his own works.".

There were inconsistencies in metronome markings even among contemporaries and close associates of composers like
Beethoven and Schumann. For example, an edition of Beethoven's Septet, published around the time of his death,
indicated significantly slower tempos than Beethoven himself had assigned ten years earlier. This raises questions about
the reliability and interpretation of metronome marks. - "An edition of Beethoven’s Septet (in a quintet arrangement)
published by Schlesinger at about the time of the composer's death gives slower metronome marks for all the movements
and very significantly slower ones for some than Beethoven himself had given to the work ten years earlier."

The text goes in depth about the posthumous treatment of composers' works, particularly Beethoven's, where his
amanuensis, Anton Schindler, manipulated entries in conversation books to support his interpretations of the proper
tempos, often contradicting Beethoven's original metronome marks. - "Anton Schindler, Beethoven’s amanuensis and
self-declared guardian of his posthumous tradition, felt so strongly about his own notion of the proper tempos for
Beethoven's music that he resorted to forging entries in the conversation books to support his view.".

Recorded performances directed by composers such as Elgar show significant divergence from their own tempo
instructions. The document suggests that earlier composers might also have been inconsistent in this regard. -
"Comparison of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century composers’ metronome marks with recorded performances
which they themselves directed (for example Elgar) show that they often diverged significantly from their own
instructions (and not only with respect to tempo)."

There were theories that early 19th-century metronome markings for faster tempos had been completely misunderstood
and should be performed at half speed. This theory, however, has been rebutted by scholars. The document also highlights
the problems with misprints and transmission errors in metronome marks. - "One author has even gone so far as to
advance the bizarre theory that the manner of indicating metronome markings for faster tempos up to about 1848 has been
completely misunderstood and that they should really be performed at half the speed. Though this theory has attracted a
few supporters, it has been ably rebutted by other scholars."

There is discussion on the degree of deviation from the 'ideal' tempo and how it can alter the intended impact of the music.
While some deviation is acceptable and may vary based on the performer's interpretation, excessive deviation can
significantly alter the character of the composition. - " It is well known that in many cases where people play carelessly a
presto is often made an allegretto and an adagio an andante, doing the greatest injustice to the composer who cannot
always be present."
The text details the considerations for determining tempo in the Classical and early Romantic periods, emphasizing the
role of metre, tempo terms, note values, and the quantity of fast notes. The text highlights that these factors were
intimately related to the composer's conceived speed and that competent composers and well-trained musicians would
have a nuanced understanding of these elements.- "During the Classical period and the early part of the Romantic period
the determination of tempo was widely acknowledged to depend on a subtle balance... Perhaps the most comprehensive
account was given by J. P. Kirnberger and J. A. P. Schulz in Kirnberger’s Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der Musik and in
a number of articles in Sulzer’s Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste."

Source2

Articulation
2
Clive Brown - Tempo - Performance Practice 1750-1900
Articulation in music operates on two levels: structural and expressive. The structural level deals with the articulation of
musical phrases and sections, while the expressive level focuses on the articulation of individual notes and figures. It's
fascinating to see how composers increasingly provided detailed instructions for articulation, shifting the performer's role
to one of interpreting these markings rather than modifying the musical text.

-"Articulation could be indicated by the composer in the form of rests or by means of articulation marks; or it might be
expected to be provided by performers based on their experience and musicality. The functions of accentuation and
articulation are broadly similar, and they are often closely linked especially in defining musical structure. Articulation can
be seen as operating principally on two levels: the structural and the expressive. At the structural level was the articulation
of musical phrases and sections while as an expressive resource appropriate articulation of individual notes and figures
was necessary to vivify a musical idea"

The comparison of music to language is a recurring theme. This analogy extends to the way phrases and sections are
separated, akin to punctuation in speech, to realize a composer's musical concept. This aspect is particularly intriguing as
it highlights the rhetorical nature of music, suggesting that understanding and applying these concepts might enrich our
appreciation of musical performances from this period.

-"Music was predominantly perceived throughout the period as a language albeit a language which like poetry appealed
more to the feelings than to the intellect. But the precision with which the language of music expressed the feelings of its
creator was considered to be of great importance"

It's evident from the text that musical punctuation and articulation varied across generations. This variability is not only
due to changes in compositional style but also in performance techniques. The text suggests that growing emphasis on
legato in both composition and performance during the 19th century might have led to a less distinct separation of phrases
in earlier music.

-"The growing emphasis on legato in both composition and performance may have led during the nineteenth century to a
less distinct separation of phrases in earlier music the articulation (where no break in continuity was indicated by the
composer) being more often conveyed by accent and dynamic nuance perhaps than by an appreciable break in the sound".

The articulation and application vary significantly across different instruments like keyboard, wind, and string
instruments. This indicates that a one-size-fits-all approach to articulation may not be appropriate, and understanding the
peculiarities of each instrument is crucial for accurate performance.

-"The mechanisms and imperatives which affect the expression of a melody that are available to the organist or
harpsichordist to convey phrasing effectively are quite different from those available to the violinist flautist or singer"

While there were general principles of articulation and phrasing, great artists displayed individuality in their approach.
This suggests that there was room for personal interpretation and expression within the guidelines of the period's musical
aesthetics.
-"Great artists will have displayed individuality just as much in this area as in others and that any two artists of a given
period may well have adopted quite distinctly personal approaches to articulating the same piece of music"

The text also touches upon how notation evolved over time, with composers providing more explicit instructions for
performers. This evolution perhaps reflects the changing relationship between composer and performer and the increasing
complexity of musical compositions.

-"Late eighteenth-century and nineteenth-century composers increasingly tended to provide notational clues or
instructions to performers that should seldom have left them in doubt about the places where the articulation that was
necessary to the proper separation of musical phrases was required"

An important takeaway is the need to understand the historical context of the music we perform. This includes being
aware of the performance practices and aesthetic principles of the period, which can significantly influence our
interpretation of a piece.

-"Musical equivalents of punctuation marks are crotchet quaver and semiquaver rests his assumption being that these will
have been included by the composer; but he recognized that there were also ‘light separations silences of very short
duration’ that were not always indicated"

Source 3

Dynamics
Dynamics are essential in creating a balance between unity and variety in music. They help avoid monotony and chaos by
emphasizing elements that contribute to the musical structure. The provided text discusses how dynamics can highlight
departures from musical patterns, such as chromatic notes, dissonances, or syncopations, thus enriching the musical
narrative. - "Dynamics often promote within various contexts a closer balance psychologically between the elements of
3
Clive Brown – Articulation and Phrasing - Performance Practice 1750-1900
unity and variety. If the impression of chaos is caused by too much variety and if monotony is caused by too much unity,
anything that helps to avoid either extreme may help to entice a more attentive ear. When the composer's markings clarify
or heighten the contrast between a pattern departure or restatement, emphasis is commonly given to that which is smaller
in its qualitative and/or quantitative effect."

The text goes in depth about perspectives on dynamics, referencing Leopold Mozart and C. P. E. Bach. It describes how
historical practices, such as emphasizing non-chordal tones or using dynamics to enhance dissonances, contribute to the
emotional expression in classical compositions."Leopold Mozart, for example, wrote: 'The natural should always be
played rather more strongly again during the course of the melody. ... In the execution of a note by a flat and a natural
should be more stressed.' C.P.E. Bach called for stressed dissonance as well. In general, it can be said that dissonances are
played more forcefully ... A performer with a good sense of rhythm will bring out these more tasteful accents and a steady
tempo.".

The climactic layout and structure of the piece can be shaped by the dynamics. They can create psychological balance,
emphasizing significant moments in the music, and contribute to the overall contour and balance of the form. The
document notes that the most crucial departures and returns in classical music are often tonal, with dynamics highlighting
these key moments. – “If unmarked, a major climax is often hardest to discern because it involves considerations that are
more widely spread and greater in number. The performer must often decide what shape a period or phrase group should
have, what levels in a movement should sound the highest and least complex, but style analysis frequently suggests a
level. When departures are brief, they are usually easier to make stand out for the same reason. Dynamic changes can help
to highlight these departures and returns."
Dynamics are particularly significant in emphasizing cadences, the clearest indicators of key in classical music. They can
either reinforce or counter the written cadences, adding depth and contrast to the musical piece. The document discusses
examples from Mozart and Haydn where dynamics play a pivotal role in defining the musical form and providing balance.
"In the music of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, cadential action - the clearest indicator of key - is often reinforced at the
end of nonsymmetrical units. Dynamic contrast is one of the main devices employed for this purpose. Without
authorization, it would probably be unwise to taper the phrases terminated by full and unevenly spaced punctuations."

The performer's interpretation of dynamics is crucial in rendering the composer's intentions. Subtle dynamic nuances can
profoundly affect the perception of a piece, highlighting key structural points or adding emotional depth. The document
argues that performers must understand the underlying tonal and structural principles to make informed decisions about
dynamics. -" This is one of the performer's artistic contributions. Since a design of keys supplies the framework of classic
form, the most significant statements, departures, and returns in this style are tonal. Moreover, the other elements are often
related to cadential action in a common effort to suggest, establish, confirm, or reaffirm the constituent tonalities.
Commitment to key feeling is thus the hallmark of the style; it controls the behavior of almost every element. "

There’s and emphasis in classical music, that tonal projections are often brief but significant, guiding the performer in
constructing a hierarchy of climaxes aligned with the most eventful happenings in the music. It also notes the importance
of harmonic departures and returns in shaping the dramatic structure of a piece. "In most of the examples cited above,
tonal definition seems to climax because of a projection of key which is uniquely potent and relatively brief in duration.
When a return is delayed, it is often correspondingly shortened. In other examples, harmonic departures and returns are
climactic for different reasons. William Newman observes that the climax in fast movements of classic piano sonatas
'occurs more often on the dominant or subdominant side of the tonal orbit in the exposition than in the recapitulation.'"
Source4

4
Robert G. Luoma - Symposium Music Org, Function of Dynamics in Music
Symbolism
The shift from white to black notation, a notable change around 1600, was significant in the history of musical notation.
This transition, referred to as "Kolorierung" (coloration), played a crucial role in the development of notation systems and
had its own set of rules as noted by Franz Xaver Haberl in 1898. - "A constant trigger for pictorial moments in writing
was the transition from white to black notation, which still had novelty value in the transition from the minim to the
semiminim before 1600. Moreover, blackening also had a function in triplets: under the significant term 'coloring'.
Writing with black notes thus followed its own rules for a long time.

Black notes were, in certain compositions, used to convey deeper meanings or symbolism. For instance, Orlando di Lasso
used filled notes in a central section of his “Offertorium” to represent darkness or mourning, as in the words “ne cadant in
obscura tenebrarum loca” ("so they [the souls of the faithful] may not fall into the dark places of shadow"). - "Josquin des
Prez's motet 'Nymphes de bois' on the death of Ockeghem is written exclusively in black notes... Orlando di Lasso
illustrated with filled notes a central spot in the Offertory. At the words 'ne cadant in obscura tenebrarum loca' ('so they
[the souls of the faithful] may not fall into the dark places of shadow'), he blackened the breves and semibreves in all
voices.".
The shift in notation in modern editions can sometimes obscure the original messages intended by composers. For
example, the change from original coloration to modern notational symbols can lead to a loss of immediate meaning, as
seen in the works of Lasso. - "Upon hearing, the message reaches at least the connoisseur, who understands from the
sudden triplet rhythm that a coloration must have occurred in the writing. Modern editions consistently destroy such
messages. The New Series of the Lasso Complete Edition replaces the original coloration with hooks as diacritical marks.
This means: Administration of meaning instead of immediacy of meaning.".

Mozart did not shy away from using notation for creating visual imagery. His c-Moll-Messe KV 427 uses modulation to
emphasize the invocation of the Son of God, “Christe eleison,” correlating musical shifts with the text’s reference to the
Father and the Son. - "Even Mozart, who perceived his entire environment with his ear and hardly ever commented on the
dimension of the visual, did not forego pictorial moments and the play with the signs. In the c-Moll-Messe KV 427, a
striking modulation draws attention to the invocation of the Son of God: 'Christe eleison' (bar 34). The change of sound
sphere corresponds with the juxtaposition of God the Father and Son in the text.".
In "Die Entführung aus dem Serail," Mozart used notation to create a visual and auditory analogy, where the character
Blondchen imitates Osmin, reflected in the identical notation despite the difference in tonality. This indicates a deliberate
and intricate use of notation for dramatic effect. - "What is to be heard gets an additional accent in writing. Blondchen
accurately adopts all the notation signs from Osmin, including the accidentals and bows. The identity is perfect. It even
extends to the same page layout in the autograph. Anyone who knows how important it was when copying scores can
hardly consider this a coincidence."

There are challenges that are regularly faced by music historians and editors when balancing the preservation of historical
authenticity with the practical needs of modern performers. The text discusses the conflict between editing as a means of
historical documentation and as a tool for enriching contemporary musical life. This debate reflects broader questions
about the role of scholarship in serving historical truth versus societal utility. - "Since the times of Historicism, it has been
a goal of scholarship to unlock music of the past and make it available in printed editions. 20th-century editions
concentrated on providing all kinds of musicians, especially amateur musicians, with scores that are immediately suitable
for sight-reading or playing. Such editions, which subject music of the past to a script of the present, will continue to exist
because they meet understandable expectations. However, they cannot claim universal validity. They neither serve the
interests of highly professional musicians nor those of scholarship because too much historical message is lost in the
process of adaptation to modern circumstances."

Source5

5
Manfred Hermann Schmid Notationskunde
Semiotics
Semiotics, the study of signs and sign-using behavior, has been increasingly applied to music analysis. This approach has
its roots in the foundational work of Ferdinand de Saussure and Charles Sanders Pierce. In the 20th century, music
scholars began applying semiotic theory to music, analyzing the works of composers like Beethoven.

Semiotic Elements in the Waldstein Sonata:

 In the first movement which is in the C Major and C Minor keys, there are ascending and descending thirds,
repeated-note motives, and slow harmonic progression.
 Second Movement has continuous dotted rhythm, as well as repeated-note motive.
 The third movement features ascending and descending thirds, repeated-note motive, polyphonic texture (canon),
pastoral style.

Specific Semiotic Elements:

 Repeated-note Motive: Used by Beethoven to express defiance against fate and destiny, this motive appears
throughout the sonata.
 Ascending and Descending Thirds: These represent desire and resignation, respectively, and are found in both the
sonata and Beethoven's vocal compositions.
 C Major and C Minor Keys: Beethoven defined these keys as 'Happy' and 'Sad,' respectively, in his composition
"Lustig-Traurig" WoO 54.
 Continuous Dotted Rhythm: Originating from the Baroque period, this rhythm is used to express ritual and
solemnity, particularly in the second movement.
 Slow Harmonic Progression: Represents the hymn choral style of German religious music, indicative of a
peaceful and pious state.
 Polyphonic Texture (Canon): Reflects the learned style and is used in the third movement to express majesty and
authority.
 Pastoral Style: Characterized by major key, repeated bass line, slow harmonic progression, and impressionistic
pedaling. This style is prevalent in the third movement and is used to express sublimation and peace.

Source6
Semiotics in works of Mozart:

 The text discusses the transition from traditional operatic rhetoric, where characters had clear, emotive
expressions, to a more nuanced and ambiguous representation of emotions and thoughts in music, as seen in
Mozart's works - "Traditionally operatic characters knew precisely what they were and what they did. Above all
they knew what they felt. Aria texts abound in emotive words as when the Queen of the Night exclaims 'Hell’s
vengeance cooks in my heart! Death and despair flame about me!' ... Yet Cherubino cannot name what he feels.
He can only list symptoms — he burns, he freezes, he palpitates, he blushes. He feels a desire but cannot explain
it."

6
Zhuying Li – Interpreting Music Semiotics: A Performance
Study of Beethoven’s ‘Waldstein’ Sonata Op.53
  Mozart's compositions often start with ambiguous musical themes that are gradually clarified through the
development of the music. This approach is exemplified in his Symphony in G Minor, K. 550, which begins with
a confused tableau and evolves into a more ordered structure through the development of musical signs.- "Like
Cherubino, Mozart enjoyed a precocious talent in the rhetorical arts... The last music Mozart ever wrote
epitomizes the art of musica poetica. The unfinished 'Lacrimosa' from the Requiem condenses an awesome
battery of rhetorical devices... No ambiguity can survive this juggernaut of musical signs... But Mozart’s music
rarely works this way. He delighted in the play of contrasting signs and his scores abound in the most jarring
shifts of style and character."

 The structure of galant music, which became prominent in the Classical era, is derived from the symmetrical
patterns of courtly dance. This new dance-based syntax allowed for a departure from the vocal or oratorical model
of music composition, leading to a more kinesthetic and balanced musical expression. - "The structure of galant
music also derives from gesture enshrining the symmetrical patterns of courtly dance. François Chastellux early
on recognized this connection: '[The Italians] saw very well that they could not invent a melody unless they held
to a simple and unique idea and gave this idea proper expression in form and proportion. This observation led
them to discover the musical period. A minuet, a gigue have their definite measures; melodies form phrases and
these phrases have their regular and symmetrical proportions.'"

Source 7

Further analysis of the Fantasy in d-minor for Piano.

Mozart's selection of D minor, particularly in his D minor Fantasy for Piano, is symbolic. D minor has been considered a
particularly demonic key in Mozart's work, often sparking discussions about the "dark side" of his character. This choice
reflects a deeper, existential tone in his music, suggesting themes of struggle, inner turmoil, or complexity. - "D minor has
been considered a particularly demonic key in Mozart the use of which has sparked talk of the 'dark side' of his character.
As one sign of Mozart’s (presumed) demonic nature Lert adduces the composer’s deep concentration and all-consuming
drive which showed themselves when Mozart was yet a young boy such that no one dared to interrupt him or crack jokes
when he was making music"

Mozart's music often contains clear narrative programs where the music acts as a story with defined characters and
actions. For example, in the D minor Fantasy, the main motif unfolds in a traditional “aab” design, suggesting a dance-like
gesture but in a solemn, ecclesiastical style, reflecting higher, more serious matters. - "The main motif unfolds in three
four-bar groups that fall into a traditional 'aab' design (Stollen Stollen Abgesang). As such the main motif has an
exteroceptive quality on the order of a 'danceless dance': in gesture it suggests a dance but which one? The key the slow
tempo the stately movement and duple meter; all this puts it in Allanbrook’s category of 'ecclesiastical' dances of 'exalted
passion' in contrast to 'galant'"

7
Rob Stephen Rumph - Mozart and Enlightenment Semiotics-University of California Press (2011)
Organic narrativity in Mozart’s work involves how gestures, kinetic energy, and rhythms contribute to the overall
narrative. The D minor Fantasy showcases this through kinetic energy growth, actoriality in the upper part, and the
development of chromatic "sigh" motifs, all contributing to an organic coherence that tells a story beyond the literal notes.

The metaphorisation in Mozart’s music represents how musical elements can suggest ideas beyond their immediate sonic
qualities. For instance, the tonal choices and structural deviations in the D minor Fantasy create existential tones and
meanings, conveying emotions and ideas that transcend the literal musical narrative. -
"The euphoric D major emerges from the isotopy of D minor as the geno-sign of its trials and struggles. The main motif
here seemingly carefree in fact carries in itself all the problems of previous developments but now as a their solution and
not as a source of constant worry"
Source: 8

8
Eero Tarasti - Semiotics of Classical Music - How Mozart, Brahms and Wagner Talk to Us