Received: 3 December 2019 Revised: 14 June 2020 Accepted: 12 July 2020

DOI: 10.1002/pc.25749

REVIEW ARTICLE

Adhesive application on particleboard from natural fibers:

A review

Amina Adedoja Owodunni1 | Junidah Lamaming1 | Rokiah Hashim1 |

Owolabi Folahan Abdulwahab Taiwo1,2 | Mohd Hazwan Hussin3 |
Mohamad Haafiz Mohamad Kassim1 | Yazmin Bustami4 | Othman Sulaiman1 |
Mohd Hazim Mohamad Amini5 | Salim Hiziroglu6

1
Division of Bioresource, Paper and
Coatings Technology, School of Industrial
Abstract
Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Impending health challenges in the formulations of particleboards from
Penang, Malaysia cellulosic-based waste particles such as wood chips, sawdust, and veneer
2
Pulp and Paper Division, Federal
boards are of great concern. These wastes are majorly bonded together with
Institute of Industrial Research Oshodi,
Lagos, Nigeria synthetic resin or binder in the presence of heat and pressure to produce parti-
3
School of Chemical Sciences, Universiti cleboards of various specifications and sizes depending on the end-use. The
Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia qualities of the particleboards depend on the modification of the particle geom-
4
School of Biological Sciences, Universiti etry, resin levels, board density, and manufacturing processes. The addition of
Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
5 special additives to enhance the qualitative performance of particleboards such
Faculty of Engineering and Technology,
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Kota Bharu, as dimensional stability, fire retardancy enhancement, and moisture resistance
Malaysia is included in the manufacturing process. The milestone in the use of wood
6
Department of Natural Resource Ecology particles for particleboard manufacture is the large reduction in the environ-
and Management, Oklahoma State
University, Stillwater, Oklahoma
mental hazard that these abundant wastes cause. Furthermore, this review
reports recent research efforts in the use of green adhesives to reduce the
Correspondence health threat related to utilizing formaldehyde-based particleboard. The use of
Rokiah Hashim, Bioresource Research
Lab, Division of Bioresource, Paper and adhesives produced from natural sources has contributed toward the reduction
Coatings Technology, School of Industrial in the impending health challenges and the cost of building construction by
Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
using such a particleboard.
Minden 11800, Penang, Malaysia.
Email: hrokiah@usm.my
KEYWORDS
Funding information adhesives, fibers, waste, wood composites
Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) Malaysia,
Grant/Award Number: Research
University Grant (1001/
PTEKIND/8014083); Universiti Sains
Malaysia (USM), Grant/Award Number:
1001/PTEKIND/8014083

1 | INTRODUCTION wood chips. Hence, the main components in the particle-

boards include an adhesive (resin), fiber (particle) and
Particleboard also is known as chipboard is manufactured additives, or filler. The compressed particles are then dried
by mixing wood chips or wood particles with a suitable and trimmed to shape resulting in the formation of parti-
wood glue followed by compressing the glued bonded cleboard panels.1 Particleboards differ significantly in

Polymer Composites. 2020;1–13. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/pc © 2020 Society of Plastics Engineers 1

2 OWODUNNI ET AL.
terms of the amount and types of resins used, the size and
geometry of the particles, as well as the density of particle-
board. Hence, the properties of the raw material have a
significant effect on both the manufacture and the physi-
cal properties of the final product. Besides, the impacts of
particleboard on the environment are also a matter to be
considered. Also, the additives are used to tailor-made the
desired additional properties of particleboard. Among the
area of interest for the application of particleboards panels
are furniture productions, house building furniture such
as cabinets, stair treads, tabletops, and sliding doors. Other
possible housing materials from particleboard panels
include wooden floor underlays, wooden panel cabinets,
and many office furniture products.2
Vast quantities of wood shavings as waste from wood-
work activities such as wood chips, sawdust, veneer
boards, and combinations of two or more are generated
worldwide at a significant rate that the level of their
recycling is not commensurate when compared with the
rate of the waste generation.2 It has been reported that
between 8% and 50% of the entire wood-based material is
being utilized yearly for various applications to become
wastes.3 These wood wastes though are recyclable are fre-
quently dumped in landfills and some occasions burnt
openly constituting air pollution through open-air burn-
ing or burnt in a combustion chamber. Over four decades
of research and development on the reusable of these
wastes have resulted in the manufacture of ceiling
panels, flooring, wall, and office dividers, furniture, cabi-
nets, bulletin boards, and desktops. The introduction of
natural fibers from agro-waste residues in particleboard
production has improved the growth in the global parti-
cleboard production from 0.3% in 2015 to 8% in 2016
compared with other wood product categories such as
pulp and paper or wood fuel.4 Likewise, the consumption
of wood pellets in Asia increased by 17% driving up wood
pellet production in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand.5
Particleboard has gained popularity as a construction
material because of its numerous usage and inexpensive
cost. It is environmentally friendly as it makes use of
waste in the form of wood chips, sawdust, and wood shav-
ings mixed with a resin to form boards. It is referred to as
an engineered panel product manufactured by thermally
pressing of particles of wood or other lignocellulosic mate-
rials such as non-wood fibers and a binder.6 They are
sometimes used as an alternative to plywood or medium-
density fiberboard to lower down the construction cost.
One of the most commonly used wood-based products is
particleboard; its extensive usage varies from building con-
structions to furniture. Typical applications for particle-
board includes; floor underlayment, cupboards, home
construction, cabinets, stair treads, shelving, tabletops,
built-in furniture, vanities, office desk, speakers, sliding
doors, lock blocks, interior signs, displays, table tennis
tables, pool tables and electronic game consoles kitchen
countertops, bookshelves, and many others.7
The increasing demand for wood and land because of
the increasing population has led to the unavailability of
wood for the particleboard industry. Deforestation from
the constant harvesting of trees for wood to produce
boards has led to the adverse impact on the environment
and the structure of the soil (leading to erosion, earth-
quakes, and other natural disasters), inciting the interest
to seek for alternative raw materials. The particleboard
industry makes use of mostly shavings produced in saw-
mills or woods cut directly from the forest because a
good-quality board is achieved product by controlling the
consistency of raw materials used for production. The
flourishing agricultural industry has led to a high
increase in wastes generated, leading to the environmen-
tal challenge of accumulating landfills. In solving the dis-
posal problem, these agriculturally generated
lignocellulosic waste is being researched as a substitute
for the wood particle for the manufacture of the panels.
These agricultural materials that can be used as raw
material for the production of particleboard are often rich
in lignin and cellulose.8 Although, oil palm fiber and rice
husk have been the most exploited lignocellulosic mate-
rials to produce particleboard, other agricultural wastes
such as oil palm trunks, oil palm empty fruit bunch,
coconut husk, hemp fiber, sunflower husk, sugar cane
bagasse, coffee husk, date palm fronds, are also being
researched and developed as a potential raw material in
the board making industry.9,10
2 | FEATURES OF
PA RTICLEBO ARDS
Basically, particleboard panels are used to manufacture
furniture and are cheaper when compared with solid tim-
ber furniture. The particleboard panels with 640-800 kg/
m3 density used in furniture are referred to as chipboard.
These particleboard panels are a good alternative to furni-
ture from solid timber and if properly maintained are very
durable.11
It is also economical as particleboard panels are
cheaper than solid wood or plywood of similar dimen-
sions. This low cost, of course, comes at a price, because
particle boards are not as durable as plywood or solid
wood. Also, particleboards manufacturers can prepare
particleboard panels to desired dimensions which are not
obtainable of wood-based panels. Since it is machine pro-
duced, standard pieces of furniture from particleboard
can be mass-produced, hence resulting in a gross reduc-
tion in the cost of production.12
OWODUNNI ET AL.
Since the particleboard production involves the modi-
fication of wood shavings with a suitable adhesive, these
panels can further be preserved a thin layer of lamina-
tion. This decorative laminate is made with either veneer
or plastic laminate usually glued over the surface of the
particleboards at the time they are manufactured. These
pre-laminated boards increase the beauty as well as the
durability of the board to some extent. This further
increases the overall cost of the custom-made plywood
furniture being made.13
They are less dense than wood-based furniture, parti-
cleboards are very light in weight compared with wood
materials, and hence furniture made from these boards
are relatively easy to transport and move around. How-
ever, when it comes to selecting a wood material that is
strength dependent, particleboards might not be suitable.
Particleboard furniture is quite weak compared to other
kinds of engineered woods such as plywood. It is less
dense and can easily get damaged while handling.14
In summary, the major advantage of particleboards is
that its cost is low compared to all the other types of
wood available in the market, and some of its disadvan-
tages are its low strength and low durability.15
3 | CONVENTIONAL
P A R T I C L E B O A R D AD H E S I V E S
Conventionally, wood products such as particleboards
panels, plywood, oriented strand board (OSB), and
medium-density fiber (MDF) board make use of phenol-
formaldehyde (PF), melamine-formaldehyde (MF), and
urea-formaldehyde (UF) as commonly used resins. These
resins are derived from non-renewable petrochemical
materials while carcinogenic formaldehyde is released
during the particleboard production and application.
Health hazards such as allergic, non-allergic, and muco-
sal respiratory symptoms, as well as cancer, are associ-
ated with these conventional binders resulting in
increasing global accumulation of hazard generated from
particleboard manufactured using formaldehyde-based
adhesives.9
The selection of resin is of importance to make sure
the particleboard produced has a low impact on the envi-
ronment. Resins used in particleboard and fiberboard are
obtained by a simple molar ratio reaction of phenol and
formaldehyde (1:[1.8-3.0]) in an aqueous solution with
sodium hydroxide acting as a catalyst.16 UF was applied
broadly in the making wood composites, but today it is
less important because they are more suited for indoor
application and not for external usage.17
Furthermore, sodium hydroxide is often used in an
equimolar ratio based on phenol to neutralize the resin
3
in the contact acidic wood components; therefore, it
exhibits a steady increase in viscosity and develops bond-
ing properties. The obtained wood particles (wood shav-
ings, wood wool, and timbering residue into wood pulp)
are mixed with the glue, and then heat-pressing to
enhance the adhesion followed by drying. To accelerate
the curing rate, special catalysts are often used.
Synthetic adhesives based on formaldehyde have been
majorly used for bonding in the production of enough
quantities of particleboard. Because of its quality to fulfill
the desired bonding requirements, fast curing time, trans-
parent color, and low cost, UF is often used in bonding
the particles mix together. PF adhesive has a good water
resistance property which makes it more effective for pro-
ducing exterior wood product materials. UF glue, on the
other hand, is cheaper and less tolerant of excessive mois-
ture, is most often used for interior materials including
wall paneling, flooring, and cabinetry. It is, however, a fact
that formaldehyde emitted from these formaldehyde-
bonded particleboards has heightened public health
concern and has been subject to stern regulation for the
last 30 years. The use of these synthetic adhesive increases
the cost of manufacturing the particleboards, thereby
increasing the selling price to make a considerable profit.18
A major demerit of formaldehyde-based wood adhe-
sive is that such particleboard panel emits formaldehyde
which poses as a threat to the indoor air quality. It was
reported that UF adhesives are used mostly for interior-
use panels, while the UF incorporated with an organic
base trimer of cyanamide such as melamine, gives adhe-
sives with a lower susceptibility against hydrolysis and
also wood panels with better water and weather resis-
tance. UF and PF resins are commonly used in the com-
posite sector of the forest products industry.19 The
advantages of UF resins are low cost, water-solubility,
easy use (under a wide variety of curing conditions), rela-
tively low cure temperature, microorganism's resistance,
low abrasion hardness, excellent thermal properties, and
clear or light color (especially of the cured resin). Due to
these advantages, the wood composite industry utilizes
UF as a common resin worldwide. The main disadvan-
tage of UF resin is the lack of resistance to high moisture
conditions, especially in combination with heat.20
In addition to the conventional particleboard
manufacturing is the use of synthetic resin adhesive (phe-
nolic resin, UF resin), and inorganic gelling material
(concrete, magnetite). Also, a spray-dried phenolic resin
in combination with molten wax has been reported used
for wafer board and oriented-strand board production.
Most adhesives used for the different types of wood-based
panels are called aminoplastic adhesives, while others
include isocyanates.21 Aminoplastic adhesives are glued
manufactured from amino-compounds at different
4 OWODUNNI ET AL.
proportions which include UF and melamine-blended
(at different proportions) urea-formaldehyde (MUF).
Aminoplastic adhesives are both thermosetting polymers
and condensation type.22
After the completion of this mechanical sorting, the
acceptable wood fibers are mixed with liquid resin in a
blending hopper. However, the resin employed in the
manufacture depends on the specific quality of particle-
board desired. Conventionally, both amino-formalde-
hyde-based resins and formaldehyde-based resins were
most commonly used while urea melamine resins are
used to ensure water resistance particleboard. The wood
particles that were presoaked in resin are then blended
till it reached consistency, occasionally additives such as
wax, dyes, wetting agents and release agents are added,
to aid processing or production of the panel that are
water-resistant, fireproof, or insect-proof. To improve the
particleboard properties, resorcinol resins can be mixed
with phenolic resins, but that is more often used with
marine plywood applications.23
These blended combinations are pressed out a sheet of
particleboard. The formed panels are then cold-
compressed for compaction (thickness reduction), and
simultaneously, the hardened resin forms a solid bond
within the wood fibers. The compressed particle-mix are
further hot-pressed within 2 to 3 MPa and 140 C to 220 C
pressure and temperature, respectively, to harden the
adhesive within the fiber walls and create bonding.24–26
The whole processes of production are precise to certify
that the size and density of the particleboard are accurate
and uniform. The manufactured particleboards underwent
finishing touches by cooling, trimming, and sanding.
These particleboards can be sold as raw board or surface
improved through the addition of a wood veneer or lami-
nate surface. Knowledge of the binder to be used is pivotal
in determining the cost of particleboard; hence, phenol
resins are sometimes modified by the addition of urea, lig-
nosulfonates, or other cost-reducing additives.
3.1 | Formaldehyde-free wood adhesives
Formaldehyde-based adhesive for particleboard manufac-
ture has been facing increasing health challenges, due to
its classification as carcinogenic and mutagenic materials.
Research and development into the use of formaldehyde-
free wood adhesive have been receiving global attention
on the commercial stage since 2004. This formaldehyde-
free wood adhesive system consisting of the use of kraft
lignin resulting in binderless particleboard and lignin
mixed with polyaminoamide-epichlorohydrin (PAE)
resin resulting in green wood adhesives. Lignin is a phe-
nolic amorphous polymer that has a very active part in
cell wall development and bonds cells together in plants,
and it acts as a natural binder for fiber in self-bonding
boards.27 When the fibers are heated at high tempera-
tures, the lignin present melts to the fiber surface, and
with the pressure applied, the lignin binds the fibers.28
Several researchers have been investigating the char-
acteristics of particleboards produced with these lignocel-
lulosic fibers. Researches have been done using these
fiber materials to produce binderless boards and a sizeable
amount of work has also been done on combining renew-
able adhesive with the fibers to make strong particle-
boards.29,30 On the other hand, the preparation of lignin-
PAE adhesives involves the mixing of an alkaline kraft lig-
nin solution with a PAE solution. Unlike the conventional
formaldehyde-based adhesive, the mixing time is usually
longer and has little impact on the shear strength of the
wood composites that make up the particleboard. The
shear strength of the wood composites bonded with the
lignin-PAE adhesives depends positively on both the
pressing time and pressing temperature. It is worth men-
tioning that the shear strength and water resistance of the
particleboard panel manufactured with the lignin-PAE
wood adhesives strongly depended on the lignin/PAE
resin ratio by weight. Additionally, research work on the
possibility of combining wood with other lignocellulosic
materials to obtain more profitable products and to
reduce the environmental harm that they cause without
tampering with the quality of particleboard is still
ongoing.
4 | N A T U R A L - B A S E D WO O D
PA RTICLE BINDER S
Over a decade now, the development of natural-based
adhesives for particleboard manufacture has been receiv-
ing attention from research scientists. Among the array
of such natural-based adhesives are starch, tannins, lig-
nin, and soy protein.31 While most natural adhesives
require their combination of a suitable synthetic com-
pound to meet the required specification for a good natu-
ral wood adhesive, tannins, on the other hand, could be
used directly or in combination with lignin which also a
natural-based wood adhesive. The choice of the wood
adhesive depends on the effect of resin that would be
used on the production costs and also its environmental
impacts resin on human health. In the wood-based
industry, the adhesive is characterized as a thermoset
resin that is utilized as the medium that attracts the wood
particles together to assemble a wood-based panel.32 The
products of particleboards obtained from lignin or its
combination with tannins are generally termed
binderless particleboards.
OWODUNNI ET AL.
5 | B IN D E R L E SS B OA R D
The renewed interest in particleboard manufacture
related to green chemistry leading to the production of
low or free-formaldehyde emission particleboards and
the promotion of products from biomass has initiated the
development of binderless particleboards. This vision of
this project is a result of the depletion of petroleum feed-
stocks and the need for sustainable development involv-
ing reduced emissions of greenhouse gases. Much work
has been done on seeking the potential of natural ligno-
cellulosic fibers to make binderless boards, these are
boards produced without the addition of neither syn-
thetic nor natural-based adhesives but uses just a high
temperature that melts the lignin and cellulose which
aids the binding process and pressure that compacts the
fiber to give the board desired shape, density, thickness,
and also the mechanical strength. Binderless have none-
theless replaced particleboard made with synthetic resin,
and the agricultural fibers used often require treatment
to produce a board with the desired quality and strength.
Some of these treatments are alkaline, acidic, steam
injection, and pre-pressing.33–35
Tajuddin et al16 made a comprehensive review of
binderless boards from natural fibers. Kurokochi and
Sato21 reported the production of binderless boards
through hot-pressing rice straw to evaluate the morpholog-
ical effect of the particles from rice straw. The report added
that the successfully produced binderless boards from rice
straw powder at a particle size smaller than 1 mm, the
wax-like substances on the epidermis of rice straw might
have also aided the high-water resistance of binderless
boards.22 Also, Lamaming et al36 produced binderless par-
ticleboard with oil palm and analyzed the influence of oil
palm chemical components on the manufactured board,
and the binderless particleboard was evaluated through a
series of mechanical, physical, and chemical analyses to
assess the self-bonding mechanism. Other lignocellulosic
materials that have been used to produce binderless
boards include; coconut husk,24 cotton stalk,25 kenaf
core,26 rice straw,37 oil palm,30 papyrus fiber,33 sugar cane
bagasse, and sweet sorghum bagasse.20,34
The preparation of binderless ramie stem particle-
board by pressing using steam injection before hot press-
ing was carried out by Guo et al.38 The ramie binderless
board was foremost hand-formed into a single layered-
mat by using a mold box; it was then pressed with a
sealed steam-injection press before undergoing the hot
press at a temperature of 190  C, a pressure of 5 MPa, for
a time of 10 minutes. The results showed that there is a
visible improvement in the physical and mechanical
properties of binderless particleboard because the lignin
in ramie stem particles was fully expanded and evenly
5
distributed by the synergistic effect of the water (steam)
and heat. Most of these binderless boards produced are
not very strong, thereby resulting in deeper research
work to analyze the potential of using more than one
material or by using little quantity of adhesive to make
this board. In some of these works, the particleboards
were made with UF or MUF resin in minute quantity.
Kalaycıoglu and Nemli35 used stalks kenaf (Hibiscus can-
nabinus L.) to make particleboard that was used as a
composite using UF resin as the binder.
However, due to the low purity and quality of lignin,
industrial uses of lignin as adhesive resin are still at the
research and development level. There is continuing
research and investigation into the utilization of eco-
friendly, non-formaldehyde-based adhesives due to con-
cerns over the quality of air, especially as it relates to
faster drying times and the manufacture of functional
products. There are several methods for the reduction of
formaldehyde emission levels from wood-based products
bonded with UF resin, where the usage of natural resins
instead of synthetic resins is one of them; another
method is the partial replacement of UF with a natural
resin.39–41
6 | P A R T I C LEB O A R D
MANUFAC TURED F ROM BIO-
BASED A DHESIVE
Particleboard is made generally by mixing wood particles
or wood flakes with either a synthetic or natural resin
under hot pressure and temperature forming particleboard
panel. The raw materials are sorted to ensure size unifor-
mity to eliminate overly large or small pieces to be fed into
a disc chipper with between 4 and 16 radially arranged
blades. Drying the particles and screening based on parti-
cle sizes is done.42 Current research in the application of
environmentally friendly bio-based binders is receiving
attention with the recent report of the use of bio-based
adhesive (soy-adhesive, blood glue, kraft lignin).43 Mean-
while, the bio-based resins that exist commercially are
mainly both tannins and soy protein-based, Conversely,
Starch is one of the most abundant relatively inexpensive
renewable natural polymers equally used as the bio-based
adhesive. They are generally obtained from cereal grains
(corn and wheat), tubers (potato), and roots (cassava).44
Consisting of two major molecular components
known as amylose and amylopectin, starch has an excel-
lent affinity toward polar materials such as cellulose. This
desirability for polar materials is due to the presence of
many hydroxyl groups in the starch molecule, forming
strong adhesive bonds.45 It is extensively used as binders,
sizing materials, glues, and pastes.46 Its current use in
6 OWODUNNI ET AL.
particleboard production involves its combination with
synthetic adhesives, such as isocyanates and UF resins.
Due to weak bonding characteristics of native starch on
wood particles, physical, chemical, and/or enzymatic
modifications of the starch molecule are usually encour-
aged. While physical modification requires cooking,
extrusion, spray drying, annealing, etc., chemical modifi-
cation involves alkali or acid treatment or oxidation
reaction.47
6.1 | Characteristics of binders used in
particleboard manufacture
To improve the strength and water resistance of the
boards, the feasibility of using either synthetic or natural-
based adhesives has been done. These binders are added
to the already present lignin, and cellulose content seeks
to improve all the properties required in particleboard.
Cotton stalks were bonded with citric acid in the research
work of Prasetiyo et al,48 the cotton stalks (Zea mays
saccharate) was considered after the chemical analysis
was done on it, to be a suitable alternative for wood
because of its lignocellulosic content. The citric acid was
added at a concentration of 0, 15, 20, and 25 wt% from its
effect on water absorption, modulus of elasticity and mod-
ulus of rupture, 20% were found to be the optimum con-
centration of citric acid used. From the results, it was
deduced that citric acid influences the physical and
mechanical properties of particleboards from corn stalks.49
Ahmed et al50 used coconut pith derived from coco-
nut husk to produce particleboard. Coconut pith is a
product of coconut husk, it consists of 70 wt% of the husk
and the fiber takes up 30%.51 An attempt was made using
MUF to see the feasibility of replacing wood with coir-
pith to make particleboard. The MUF was added at a con-
centration of 7%, 10%, 13%, and 16% wherein the result,
16% MUF was found to be optimum that showed the best
strength. Also, the effect of particle size was analyzed and
showed particleboards made using the medium size parti-
cle also gave the best performance for both binderless
and MUF bonded boards. This indicated that coconut
pith can be used for making binderless and adhesive
bonded particleboard.50,52
Sweet sorghum bagasse (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench)
was combined with citric acid for the manufacturing of
particleboard, the effects of pre-drying treatment, and the
citric acid content on the physical properties of the boards
produced was analyzed by Kusumah et al.34 Sorghum
bagasse is a natural lignocellulosic raw material and the
citric acid utilized is a natural adhesive resulting in a prod-
uct with free formaldehyde percentage. Wet sorghum
bagasse particle already sprayed with adhesives were then
dried at 80 C for 12 hours to obtain a moisture content of
about 3%-14%, this was known a pre-drying. Boards made
using PF resin and polymeric methylene diphenyl
diisocyanate (PMDI) were used as references. The boards
were manufactured under the pressing conditions of
200 C for 10 minutes. The citric acid content used was
varied between 0 and 30 wt%, with boards made with 20%
giving the best physical properties. The internal bonding
of both the non-treated and pre-treated particleboards
increased proportionally as the citric acid content
increased. Also, the internal bonding strength of pre-
treated boards bonded with 30 wt% citric acid had a wide
difference to the non-treated boards made with the same
quantity of citric acid. The pre-drying treatment on the
sprayed particles and the increasing content of citric acid
improved water resistance, and mechanical properties of
the particleboards met the requirement of particleboard of
Type 18 of JIS A 5908 standard. It is concluded that
sorghum bagasse is a good potential for raw material in
producing particleboard.53
Coconut fiber, a by-product of coconut husk which is
highly rich in lignin and cellulose, was bounded with cas-
tor oil polyurethane adhesive to make particleboard. This
study was used to check the feasibility of using coconut
fiber, castor oil adhesive, and UF to produce qualitative
particleboard, varying densities of 0.8 and 1.0 g/cm3. The
particle mix was placed in the mold and was later
inserted in the hot press at a pressure of about 50 kg/cm2
and the temperature ranging from 100 to 140 C for
10 minutes and with a board dimension of 40 cm × 40 cm
with a thickness of 10 mm. For the physical properties,
the boards produced with 1.0 g/cm3 had the lowest per-
centage for water absorption and a thickness swelling,
the mechanical tests showed that the MOE did not meet
the standard requirement but is good enough and can be
improved.54
Particleboards applications are popular in the field of
packaging, but due to the high demand for wood and
wood materials, they are among the most popular mate-
rials used in construction. They are used in the area of
interior construction (such as floor, wall, ceiling panels,
office dividers, bulletin boards, cabinets, furniture, coun-
ter, and desktops) and exterior applications. With deplet-
ing wood resources, the wood industry struggles to obtain
a sufficient amount of raw material for particleboard
production.55
This condition encourages many studies on the possi-
bility of using natural fibers or agricultural by-products as
materials in particleboard manufacturing. It is also a
source of replacing wood materials due to the high
demand for wooden materials and a continued rise in agri-
cultural residue in the agricultural areas that resulting in
forest fires.9 Physical and mechanical strength properties
OWODUNNI ET AL.
are among the various characterization carried out on
particleboard. Besides, quality testing of particleboards is
geared toward its suitability and performance index of the
applied adhesive. These characterizations are generally
standardized methods, snowballing to the importance
being attached to non-destructive material tests to
assess the adhesion properties. Consequently, the shelf
life of the adhesion tends to be unrealistic due to
weather-dependency.56
7 | BIO-BASED A DHESIVES FOR
P A R T I C LEB O A R D MA N U F A C T U R E
Current research and development in the use of green
adhesives in particleboard manufacture to reduce the
health threat related to utilizing formaldehyde-based par-
ticleboard have led to research and development in bio-
based adhesives. This research effort is aimed to provide
a sustainable solution to indoor air quality with rest to
formaldehyde emission. Bio-based adhesives used for par-
ticleboard manufacture including; tannin, soy protein
adhesives, starch adhesive, lignin-based adhesives.57 All
adhesive raw materials reported on bio-based adhesives
can significantly reduce formaldehyde emissions when
replacing formaldehyde-based adhesives in the wood-
based panel industry. Despite the green nature of bio-
based adhesives, they suffer some diverse matters that
limit their industrial usage. For example, lack of adhesion
for starches, poor water resistance for hydroxyl group
enriched materials, or viscosity for long molecule chain
polymers.58
Unlike other bio-adhesives, tannins provide good
adhesion and can be used to make panels with higher
moisture tolerance. Furthermore, suitable crosslinkers
such as hexamine, glyoxal, and tris (hydroxymethyl)
nitromethane have already been reported and adopted.
Bio-based adhesives are characterized by some common
problems a lack of economically viable crosslinkers for
bio-based adhesives that would increase reactivity,
mechanical properties, and humidity stability. It also
does not need any reinforcement from synthetic
petroleum-based adhesives.59 Lignin adhesive is charac-
terized by low reactivity leading to long-pressing times
and thus increased production cost in panel manufactur-
ing. It is worth mentioning that a combination of tannin/
lignin to replace formaldehyde has also been reported in
the literature. Soy protein adhesives have also been
reported as a potential candidate for green adhesives.60
Its ready availability and low cost contributed to its use
in high-cost premium green panel.
Starch which is an abundant polymer is used for
starch-based adhesives which provide many advantages
7
for solid wood and plywood industries, as they are easy to
handle, low cost, and low formaldehyde emission. Starch
adhesives are characterized by the lack of reactivity, bond
strength, storage stability and water tolerance of starch-
based adhesives make them is challenging when indus-
trial board applications are considered.61 Proper modifi-
cation combined with crosslinking is needed to reach the
required bond strength. So far, no economically viable
bio-based cross-linkers are available on the market and
starch adhesives rely on synthetic crosslinkers, such as
isocyanates and epoxides. The starch-based wood adhe-
sive is heavily hydrogen-bonding dependent and the
crosslinker needs to both increase adhesion and water
resistance.62
8 | DRAWBACKS IN
PA RTICLEBO ARD
MANUFAC TURING
Formulations for particleboard manufacture are
described regarding practical applications concerning
its environmental testing and standardization. Despite
the milestone of research and development in particle-
board manufacturing, the conventional adhesive
widely used in commercial quantities are still
formaldehyde-based which includes PF, UF, and MF
adhesives.1 There have been reports on the use of iso-
cyanates and natural adhesives with tannin and sulfite
waste liquor-based adhesives. Also, re-utilization of
these recycled wood wastes could lead to the genera-
tion of gaseous emissions that are environmentally
harmful within an enclosed environment beyond the
tolerant level. Emission of these gases could be attrib-
utable to the incompletely reacted formaldehyde-based
resins from the recycled wood waste and application of
new formaldehyde as the binder for new product
inducing illness through immune mechanisms and
direct toxicity.63 This has led to poor indoor air quality
in some cases in most modern buildings resulting in
serious health challenges for such occupants.64
Recently, research and development have reported,
means of moderating these formaldehyde emissions
from the wood composite panels. This includes firstly,
reduction in the amount and chemical modification of
formaldehyde resin used in the production of the parti-
cleboards, and secondly is the use of formaldehyde-free
adhesives such are natural latex, soy-based adhesives,
gum Arabic, wheat gluten, corn starch, and nano-
modified starch. Economically, starch has been suc-
cessfully used as resins in wood-based industries in
commercial quantities being low-cost natural polymers.
Although the use of cassava starch has been saddled
8 OWODUNNI ET AL.
with some drawbacks such as dimensional stability
and poor bonding properties of starch bonded boards
due to its hygroscopicity nature.65 Starch modification
has been reported to improve the quality of the starch
used as binders in particleboard applications. The
importance of starch chemical modification is to intro-
duce some functional groups to improve its adhesive
properties in various applications. The starch modifica-
tions encompass oxidation,66 radical graft copolymeri-
zation, esterification, etherification, and crosslink
reaction.67
There is a very important need to consider the chemi-
cal and physical (rheological test, curing test, morpholog-
ical properties of wetted glued joints, and electroacoustic
measurements) properties of the adhesive because they
are environment-dependent. Improvement in the modu-
lus of rupture MOR and density of the particleboard
panels manufactured from modified starch and low per-
cent UF binder on Eastern red cedar was investigated.68
It was reported that modification of cassava starch pow-
der with glutardialdehyde has resulted in the reduction
of its hygroscopic tendency and improve its bonding
properties and later used to produce improved and sus-
tainable particleboards. In another study on the effect of
the modified starch application on rubberwood bonded
with modified starch, it was reported that the application
resulted in improved both the modulus of rupture and
the internal bond strength of the panels while the result
also satisfied the condition of the standard.69 So far very
limited studies are available on both the utilization of
starch and reuse of woodchips from furniture and wood
processing activities in the particleboards manufacturing.
9 | ADDITIVES USED IN
P A R T I C LEB O A R D MA N U F A C T U R E
Apart from fiber particles and resins, some materials
refer to as additives may be employed in particleboard
production. The essence of these materials is to control
and modify the reaction conditions in the particleboard
production, and also modify the final product. Among
the properties being addressed include, water repellent,
crosslinkers, colorants, fillers, and fire retardant.70 Wood
being cellulosic material is highly vulnerable to insects
and fungi attacks. Whereas poor water repellency on the
wood particles may lead to dimensional instability, fungi
as well as insect attack which can eventually compromise
the strength properties of the material. Therefore, the
pre-treatment of the materials to get maximum durability
is crucial. Depending on whether indoor or outdoor use,
the application of appropriate additive is a means of solv-
ing the potential problem.71
10 | NATURAL FIBERS F OR
PARTICLEBOARD M ANUFAC TURE
Generally, natural fibers can be classified according to
their origin. The animal fibers are regarded as protein-
based fibers such as wool, mohair, and silk. These fibers
are usually used in textiles, arts, and decorative works.72
The mineral fibers are used in asbestos while the vegeta-
ble or cellulose-based fibers include such important fibers
as cotton, flax, and jute. Of these classes of fibers, the
cellulose-based natural fibers are used in particleboard
manufacture. A typical wood waste used for particle-
boards consists of solid timber particles, timber shavings,
sawdust, veneer panels, and combinations of two or more
of them. The quality of wood furnish in particleboard is
controlled by the woods' properties such as acidity,
extractive content, density, and machinability.
These wood wastes are mostly dumped in landfills or
burnt in a combustion chamber. However, these wood
wastes could be reused by sorting, processing, and uti-
lized as raw material for the development of particle-
boards. However, the decline of forest reserves has
attracted researchers to find other lignocellulosic fibers
or particles as an alternative raw material for the produc-
tion of these particleboards.73,74 Agricultural residues,
such as stems, stalks, leaves, and seed pods generated
abundantly annually are the most suitable candidates as
an alternative particle or fiber in particleboard. There are
over 30 agricultural residues used as raw materials in par-
ticleboard production. All types of fiber used have their
characteristics and performances.
11 | RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT OF
PARTICLEBOARD FR OM NATUR AL
FIBERS
An increase in the cost of construction materials, coupled
with a shortage of supply of solid wood has been seen to
endanger the sustainability of the forest-based industries
in building construction. This has enhanced the interest
of researchers on the use of lignocellulose natural fibers
that are waste and continue to accumulate, causing eco-
logical challenges. There has been continuous research
and development concerning the viability of wood-based
panels such as particleboards, MDF, and OSB with the
introduction of natural fibers as direct or partial substi-
tute of wood particles in its production.75
Table 1 tabulated some of the common agricultural
wastes used for particleboards. Pan et al49 made rice
straw particleboard by replacing polymeric methylene
diphenyl diisocyanate (PMDI) with rice bran adhesive up
OWODUNNI ET AL. 9

TABLE 1 Past work on particleboards produced from various biomass

Research title Biomass type Reference

Mechanical and thermal properties of boards made from farm residues. Maize hub and cob 76
Upgrading of urea formaldehyde-bonded reed and wheat straw Reed and wheat straw 52
particleboards using silane coupling agents.
The physical properties of medium-density wheat straw-particleboard Wheat straw 53
using different adhesives.
Effect of particle size on bamboo particleboard properties. Bamboo chips 77
The potential for using corn stalks as a raw material for production Cotton stalks 78
particleboard with industrial wood chips.
Producing composite particleboard from kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus I.) Kenaf 35
stalks.
Effect of corn starch and wood glue to physical and mechanical Rice husk 37
properties of rice-husk based particleboard
Fibers of coffee husk and hulls for the production of particleboard. Coffee husk and hulls 57
Characterization of raw materials and manufactured binderless Oil palm fronds, 17
particleboard from oil palm biomass. leaves and trunk
The potential for using walnut (Juglans regia L.) shell as a raw material Walnut shell 58
for wood-based particleboard manufacturing.
Effects of anatomical and chemical properties of wood on the quality of Wood shavings 79
particleboard
Properties of green particleboard manufactured from coconut fiber Coconut fiber 29
using a potato starch-based adhesive
Assessment of multilayer particleboards produced with green coconut Coconut fiber and 19
fibers and sugarcane bagasse sugarcane bagasse

to 30% of PMDI because of the highly expensive nature
and toxicity of PMDI, achieving final boards with proper-
ties like those of 100% PMDI bonded particleboard.
Generally, natural fibers have good thermal conduc-
tivity and excellent mechanical properties. It is essential
to analyze or know the chemical compositions of the
raw material (natural fiber) before using it to produce
the particleboards. These lignocellulose-rich fibers are a
type of biopolymer composite that comprises of chemi-
cal components in varying percentages depending on
the fiber compositions. These compositions have an
impact on the quality of the particleboards produced
with them, they include the lignin, alpha-cellulose
(α-cellulose), hemicellulose, holocellulose, extractive
content, the ash content, and others in small percent-
ages. The α-cellulose is the most basic element of the
cell wall. It aids good physical and mechanical proper-
ties of the board and is responsible for the tensile
strength of the particleboard. The lignin is a complex
phenolic amorphous polymer, an essential element
needed in cell wall development, as it is responsible for
the rigidity and toughness of the fiber while providing
with compressive strength. It aids particleboard bonding
and further improves its mechanical properties.16,80
The analyses are often done according to their various
TAPPI standards.81 Table 2 provides a few agricultural
biomasses with its chemical compositions content.
12 | NATURAL FIBER
PRETREATMENT I N
PA RTICLEBO ARD
MANUFAC TURING
Generally, the manufacturing process of boards from
fibers often requires a little or more treatment compared
to using the regular wood obtained from the forest for
woodwork. Because most of these agricultural wastes are
taken from the areas such as the dumping sites, or can be
specially monitored before the disposal, they often con-
tain unwanted impurities such as small-sized stones,
nails, cotton, and other foreign materials, these require
unique energy and time for segregation, washing,
cleaning or other types of treatment that can be used to
get the fiber of desired shape.91 Also, these fibrous raw
materials require little treatment before hot pressing due
to difficulty of adhesives penetrate them, which also dis-
courages good mechanical interlocking between the
10 OWODUNNI ET AL.

TABLE 2 Some agricultural biomass and its chemical composition contents

Lignin α-cellulose Hemicellulose

Biomass content (%) content (%) content (%) Reference
Oil palm fiber 17.3-26.5 44.2-49.6 18.3-33.5 82
Coconut fiber 45-62.9 46.1 - 29
Rice husk 14.3 31.3 24.3 83
Sweet sorghum bagasse 23.02 34.87 33.95 34
Kiwi stalks 26.7 38.38 32.19 84
Date palm 31.9 50.6 8.1 16
Coffee hull 33–35 40-49 25-32 57
Lemon balm stalk 26.5 42.7 14.3 85
Date palm rachis 27.2 45.0 - 86
Kenaf 18.70-24.3 39-63 15-19 87,88
Corn stalks 22.2 53.6 16.2 89
Sugarcane bagasse 17.3–26.5 55.6-57.4 23.9-24.5 90
Groundnut shell 30.2 35.7 18.7 83
Rice straw 15-28 30-35 25-30 18
Cotton stalks 26.3 36.0 28.8 85

fibers, unlike the very fine particles of wood. After the
treatment, the fiber that is to be bound using adhesive or
any other types of binder, the binder is mixed with the
fiber and is placed in the mold to give the resulting
dimension, the mold is often cold-pressed for few
minutes before being sent to the hydraulic press to com-
pact it using heat and pressure. For the binderless board,
the fiber is compressed in the cold press and placed in
the hydraulic hot press where the heat will help melt the
lignin, and the pressure compresses to give strong parti-
cleboard. The least treatment that is done is often to
reduce the moisture content to 5%-9%.63,92 In producing
particleboard from coconut fiber, the moisture was
reduced to 2%-3%65 as a form of treatment of the fiber
before proceeding with mixing with adhesive.
Ahmad et al67 treated rattan waste with alkaline to
analyze the effect of the pretreatment on the quality of
boards produced. The rattan waste was inserted deep in
1% NaOH solution for 10 minutes, and thereafter it
undergoes drying in an oven at 35 C for 48 hours. The
treatment removed impurities in the fibers, thereby
enhancing the mechanical locking among the fibers and
the board's properties met the standard requirements,
particularly the thickness swelling.
Pretreatment was done on sorghum bagasse in the
production of particleboard with citric acid.93 The wet
sorghum bagasse particles that were already sprayed with
citric acid adhesive were oven-dried at a temperature of
80 C for 12 hours to reduce the moisture content to 3%-
14% before hot pressing. The physical properties of the
pre-dried particles produced boards were better than
boards prepared using the non-dried particles. The
mechanical properties also met the required standard.
The pretreatment of fiber or treatment is done during
the process of production of the fiber-based particleboard
can only be efficient if the cost of treatments does not
exceed the production cost for using the already existing
established material for producing the costs of the
boards.94 The heat used in treatment should not be too
high to make the production of the board costly; therefore,
any treatment done should be cost-effective and meet the
standard requirements to produce a qualitative board.95
Generally, the pretreatments done on the raw mate-
rials (fibers) are drying, length reduction to the desired size
(trimming or grinding). There are two drying processes for
the materials; air-drying and oven drying. The fibers are
air-dried in an open space to reduce the moisture content,
thereby inhibiting the actions of microorganisms on the
raw materials. The oven-drying process is used to further
dry the materials and to achieve the desired moisture con-
tent. The moisture content of the fiber can then be tested
using a laboratory moisture content analyzer.
13 | CONCLUSIONS
This review reported that the viability, growth, and contin-
ued accomplishment of the particleboard industry are
dependent upon the development of new environmentally
friendly adhesives from renewable materials. The review
work indicated that an environmentally friendly wood
adhesive can be prepared from a naturally renewable
OWODUNNI ET AL.
resource for bonding interior-type particleboard. Among
the array of research milestones in this effort is modified
starch or starch-based as a binder in industrial production
of particleboards with promising potential to mitigate the
risk factors associated with excessive use of formaldehyde
resin-based panel. The modified starch binder had signifi-
cant differences across all the tests conducted for the pre-
pared particleboards. Improvement in the modulus of
rupture, density, and the adhesive properties has been
recorded for modified starch bonded particleboard.
Binderless particleboards and starch-based adhesive-bonded
particleboard have been reported to be environmentally
friendly and often meet a certain standard requirement.
When selecting the type of natural adhesive to use, it is
important to consider the moistness of the environment
where the particleboard will be used, some adhesive bonds
break down in moist conditions and become unstable, and
this modification might be required to improve their dimen-
sional stability. Another factor to be considered is if these
kinds of panels will be used indoor or outdoor, this is
because some resins emit volatile organic compounds after
curing which might be harmful to humans. Additionally,
the natural fibers or agro-waste residue as raw materials
have been found to have a strong potential in producing
qualitative particleboards that met the required standard.
The use of these agro-wastes fibers has the potential of
improving the negative effect of their accumulation on the
ecosystem. However, more research work is needed on
these fibers that aid the mechanical interlocking of the
fibers to result in good mechanical, physical, and thermal
properties of the produced particleboards.
A C K N O WL E D G M E N T S
The authors acknowledge Universiti Sains Malaysia
(USM), Malaysia, for providing financial support through
Research University Grant (1001/PTEKIND/8014083).
ORCID
Rokiah Hashim https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6907-1411
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How to cite this article: Owodunni AA,
Lamaming J, Hashim R, et al. Adhesive application
on particleboard from natural fibers: A review.
Polymer Composites. 2020;1–13. https://doi.org/10.
1002/pc.25749