1

Chapter 26
Current and Resistance
Objective
26-1 Electric Currents
26-2 Current Density
26-3 Resistance and Resistivity
26-4 Ohm's Law
26-5 Power in Electric Circuits
 2

26-1 Electric Currents

Charges in motion

Electrostatics  Charges do not move

Electric current  Charges move

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26-1 Electric Currents

Electric current

Electric current through a surface

is
the flow rate of net charges through the surface.

3 electrons moving towards us 3 electrons and 3 protons

moving towards us
Cross sectional
area A +e
-e -e -e -e
+e +e
-e -e

Current ≠ 0 Current = 0
 4

26-1 Electric Currents

Random motion does not produce current

Electric current through a surface

is
the flow rate of net charges through the surface.
Wire cross section Wire cross section
4 electrons moving to the right 4 electrons moving randomly
in all directions
-e -e -e
-e
-e
-e -e -e

Area A No net transport of charge

Current ≠ 0 Current = 0
Electrons in isolated conductor
(no external electric field applied)
Random motion - Speed ≈ 106 m/
s
 5

26-1 Electric Currents

Formula - Electric current

Electric current through a surface

is
the flow rate of net charges through the surface.

Charge dq passes
through surface A
in time dt Wire

dq
i= Cross section
dt
Cross section
Surface A
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26-1 Electric Currents

Steady-state electric current

dq
i=
dt

Total charge q passes through surface A in time t

t
q= ∫ i dt
Surface A 0

In a steady-state condition,
current does not change with time.

q=it
 7

26-1 Electric Currents

Electric current through a wire

Wire
In a steady-state condition
Current through A1
= Current through A2
= Current through A3

Surface A3
Surface A2
Surface A1 Since charge is conserved,
any electron passes through A1
should pass through A2 and A3.
 8

26-1 Electric Currents

SI unit for electric current

SI unit for current

Ampere
Symbol

A
dq
i=
dt

1 Coulomb
1 Ampere =
1 Second
 9

26-1 Electric Currents

Current is a scalar quantity

Current is a scalar quantity

We use arrows to indicate directions of currents in wires.

i3
i1
i1 i3
i2

i2
i1 = i2 + i3 i1 = i2 + i3

These arrows are not vectors.

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26-1 Electric Currents

Convention - current direction

Current Current

Moving free electrons Fixed electrons

-e -e -e -e -e -e
+e +e +e +e +e +e
Conductor Conductor
Fixed positive ions Moving positive ions
Charge carriers = electrons Charge carriers = positive ions
Convention (agreement)
Real world Not real

A current arrow is drawn in the direction in which positive

charge would move, even if the actual charge carriers
(electrons) are negative and move in the opposite direction.
 11

26-1 Electric Currents

Checkpoint 1
1A
2A
Wire
2A
2A
3A
4A
i?
Solution
Charge is conserved
current in = current out
Given current in = 3 + 2+ 4 + 2 = 11 A

Given current out = 1 + 2 = 3 A

8A
i = 8 A out
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26-1 Electric Currents

Example 1

Water flows from a garden hose at a rate of = 450 cm3/s

flow rate of 450 cm3/s

Garden hose Water

What is the net flow of charge through the hose ?

What is the current of negative charge though the hose?

Solution Since water molecule is neutral,
there is no net flow of charge (current = 0) through the hose.

The current of negative charge = The current of positive charge

dq negative charge
i= =
dt time
𝑑
𝑡
𝑑
𝑉
 13

26-1 Electric Currents

Example 1
Solution = 450 cm3 /s
negative charge negative charge volume
i= =
time volume time = water density = 1 g/cm3
negative charge negative charge mass
= = 1/molar mass
volume mass volume = 1/(18 g/mole)
H2O
negative charge negative charge moles
= oxygen = 8 protons
mass mole mass + 8 neutorns
negative charge negative charge molecules hydrogen = 1 proton
=
mole molecule mole = Avogadro's Number
negative charge negatvie charge electrons = 6.02X1023 Molecules/mole
=
molecule electron moleucle
= 10 electrons/molecule
-19
= e = 1.6X10 C/electron = 2 from hydrogen atoms and 8 from oxygen atom
1.6X10-19 C 10 electrons 6.02X1023 molecules 1 mole 1g 450 cm3
i=( )( )( )( )( )( )
electron molecule mole 18 g cm3 s
= 24.1X106 A
 14

26-2 Current Density

Definition

Point P Point P

Surface A1
Surface A2
= 0.2 m2
= 0.4 m2

4 coulombs pass per second 4 coulombs pass per second

through surface A1 through surface A2

Current through A1= 4 A Current through A2= 4 A

Current density at point P Current density at point P

current current
= = 20 A/m2 = = 10 A/m2
area area
 15

26-2 Current Density

Current density is a vector quantity
Current density is a vector quantity
→

Direction v
→
J
The same direction as the velocity of the
moving positive charges.
→ →
J v

Opposite to the direction of the velocity of the

moving negative charges.

current
Magnitude J=
area normal to the velocity
The SI unit for the current density J is A/m2
 16

26-2 Current Density

Finding current from current density

→ →
∫
= ∙

Area vector
Magnitude Area of the surface
Direction Normal to the surface

→ →
If J is uniform and parallel to dA

i=JA
i
J=
A
𝑖
𝐽
𝑑
𝐴
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26-2 Current Density

Streamlines

→ →
Electric Field E Current Density J
Electric field lines Streamlines
→ →
E J

At any point, the tangent of an At any point, the tangent of a

electric field line gives the streamline gives the direction
direction of the electric field. of the current density.

Number of lines per unit area in a Number of lines per unit area in a
plane perpendicular to the electric plane perpendicular to the
field lines is proportional to the streamlines is proportional to the
magnitude of the electric field. magnitude of the current density.
 18

26-2 Current Density

Illustration - Streamlines

Same current
Charge is conserved
(Any charge passes though the 1st surface
should pass through the 2nd surface

Streamlines representing
current density in the flow of
charge through a conductor

High current density

Low current density
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26-2 Current Density

Drift speed
Current = 0 Current ≠ 0
→ →
=0 ≠0

-e -e -e -e

-e -e -e -e

Conduction electrons move Conduction electrons still move

randomly, with no net motion in any randomly, but they tend to drift with
direction a drift speed in the direction
opposite that of the applied electric
field.

Random-motion speeds ≈ 106 m/s Drift speeds ≈ 10−5m/s

𝐸
𝐸
𝑑
𝑣
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26-2 Current Density

Drift speed → → Drift speed
=( )
Current density Number of charge carriers
(electrons) per unit volume

Assume that these charge carriers all move with the same drift speed and
that the current density J is uniform across the wire’s cross-sectional area A.

The number of charge carriers in a length L of the wire is nAL

The total charge of the carriers in the length L, each with charge e, =( )

This charge moves through any cross section of the wire in the time interval =
→
= =
L

= -e
-e
-e -e
𝑑
𝑣
𝑡
𝑑
𝐸
𝐽
𝑛
𝑒
𝑣
𝑑
𝑡
𝑖
𝑛
𝐴
𝑒
𝑣
𝑑
𝑑
𝐽
𝑛
𝑒
𝑣
𝑣
𝑞
𝑛
𝐴
𝐿
𝑒
𝐿
𝑞
 21

26-2 Current Density

Checkpoint 2

Electrons moving leftward

-e -e -e

Conductor

What is the direction of … Solution

Current? Rightward
Current density? Rightward

Electric Field? Rightward

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26-2 Current Density

Example 2
Uniform current
density
R = 2.0 mm
J = 2.0 X 105 A/m2
R
R/2
What is the current through the outer portion of
the wire between radial distances R/2 and R?

Cross section of a wire

Solution
i=JA
2 R 2
i = J (πR -π( ) )
2
3
i = J ( πR2 ) = 1.9 A
4
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26-2 Current Density

Example 3
Not uniform dA = 2πrdr
current density
R = 2.0 mm
J = a r2
a = 3.0 X 1011 A/m4
r in meters R
R/2

What is the current through the outer portion of

the wire between radial distances R/2 and R?
Cross section of a wire

Solution
→ →
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
2
= ∙ = = 2 = 2
15
[4]
2 4 24 4 4= 7.1
∫
=2 3 =2 =2 ( − =
4 64 32
)
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𝑅
𝑅
2
𝑅
2
𝜋
𝐽
𝑎
𝑎
𝑟
𝜋
𝑟
𝑟
𝑑
𝜋
𝑑
𝑟
𝑟
𝑟
𝑑
𝑟
𝜋
𝑎
𝜋
𝑎
𝜋
𝑎
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𝐽
𝐽
𝑑
𝐴
𝑑
𝐴
𝑟
𝑅
𝑅
𝐴
𝑅
𝑅
𝑅
𝑅
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26-3 Resistance and Resistivity

Formula - Potential difference and current
Resistor
V symbol
i
An object
(Resistor)

V=Ri
Current
Potential
difference Resistance
 25

26-3 Resistance and Resistivity

SI unit for resistance

SI unit for resistance

Ohm
Symbol

Ω
V=Ri

1 Volt
1 Ohm=
1 Ampere

Ω is pronounced omega
 26

26-3 Resistance and Resistivity

Resistivity
Resistance R of an object Resistivity ρ of a material

Property of the object Property of the material

Depends on the shape Does not depend on the shape

= → →
=

SI unit ohm SI unit ohm•meter

Ω Ω•m

Conductivity σ of a material
1
=
→ →
=
SI unit mho•meter
𝜌
𝜎
𝐸
𝐽
𝜌
𝜎
𝐸
𝐽
𝑉
𝑅
𝑖
 27

26-3 Resistance and Resistivity

Formula - Resistance and resistivity

Calculating Resistance from Resistivity

V
A homogenous isotropic
i conductor of uniform cross
section A and length L
L
ρ
Area A E= J
V i
=ρ
L A
homogenous
V L property does not depend
=ρ on the position
i A Isotropic
ρ
L property does not depend
R= on direction
A
 28

26-3 Resistance and Resistivity

Checkpoint 3
V Solution V
i=
R
ρ
i1 V A
i1 = L
ρ L R=
Area A A
L
V A
i=
V ρ L
V A/2 1 V A
i2 i2 = =
ρ 1.5 L 3 ρ L
Area A/2 1.5 L
V
V A/2 V A
i3 i3 = =
ρ L/2 ρ L
Area A/2 L/2
All made of copper i1 = i3 > i2
Rank current greatest first.
 29

26-3 Resistance and Resistivity

Formula - resistivity and temperature

Variation of resistivity with temperature

Temperature coefficient
of resistivity

ρ - ρ0 = ρ0 α (T-T0 )
Reference
Resistivity at T temperature
Resistivity at T0
Temperature

Good approximation over

a wide temperature range
 30

26-3 Resistance and Resistivity

Example 3
For iron ρ = 9.68 X 10-8 Ω.m.
What is the resistance of the block? Solution
ρ
V L
R=
A
0.15
1.2 cm iron -8
R = (9.68 X 10 )
(.012)(0.012)
1.2 cm R = 100 µΩ
15 cm
ρ
L
R=
A
V .012
1.2 cm iron R = (9.68 X 10-8 )
(0.15)(0.012)

1.2 cm R = 0.65 µΩ
15 cm
 31

26-4 Ohm's Law

Formula - Ohm's law

V V

i i

V=Ri V=Ri
Constant Function of
Current is directly proportional the potential difference
to the potential difference

Device Device
obeys Ohm's law does not obey Ohm's law
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26-4 Ohm's Law

Checkpoint 4
Which device does not obey Ohm's law?
Device 1 Device 2

V I V I
1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0
2.0 4.0 2.0 4.0
3.0 6.0 3.0 9.0

Solution

Device 1 Device 2
obeys Ohm's law does not obey Ohm's law
 33

26-5 Power in Electric Circuits

Formula - Power
i i

B Device V B R V

i i
Power is the rate of electric Power is the rate of electric
energy transfer from the battery energy transfer from the battery
to the device. to the device.

P=iV P=iV
For any device For a resistor V = R i
(resistor, motor, capacitor)
V2
P = i2 R P=
R
 34

26-5 Power in Electric Circuits

Energy rate to rotate motors and charge capacitors

i i

B motor V B C V

i i

Electric energy from the Electric energy from the

battery is transferred at battery is transferred at
a rate of P = i V to rotate a rate of P = i V to
the motor. charge the capacitor.
 35

26-5 Power in Electric Circuits

Energy rate to heat up resistors

i When electrons drift through

a resistor, they collide with
the molecules of the resistor,
this increases the random
B R V motion of the molecules
which is equivalent to higher
i temperature.

Electric energy from the

battery is transferred at a
rate of P = i V to heat up
the resistor.
 36

26-5 Power in Electric Circuits

Derivation - Electric power
The change in potential
Derivation of P = i V energy of dq is
High electric dU= dq(0-V) = - dqV
dq potential = V
The rate at which potential
energy changes
B Device V dU dq V dq
=- =- V= - i V
dt dt dt
i loss
Low electric Since the energy is conserved,
potential = 0 the rate at which potential energy
is lost is the rate at which energy
Suppose a charge of dq of other form is gained.
moves through the device dU
during time dt P= − = iV
dt
 37

26-5 Power in Electric Circuits i0

Checkpoint 5
V0 = R0 i0
Rank the change in the rate at which V0 R0
electrical energy is converted to
thermal energy due to the resistance? V02
P0 = = i0 2R0
R0
2i0 i0

2V0 R0 R0 V0 2R0 2R0

Solution V2
P= = i2R
R
(2V0 )2 V0 2
P= P = (2i0 )2R0 P= P = i0 2 (2R0 )
R0 2R0
P0
P = 4P0 P = 4P0 P= P = 2 P0
2
 38

26-5 Power in Electric Circuits

Example 4
Nichrome heating wire
Nickel-chromium-iron alloy
R = 72 Ω
V = 120 V
At what rate is energy dissipated?
Solution
V2
P= = 200 W
R

If the same voltage is applied to a wire that has half the

original length, at what rate is energy dissipated ?
Solution
For half the length R = 36 Ω
V2
P= = 400 W
R