Mulaye's THESIS

THE ASSESSMENT OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE AND NCHANGA MINE WATER TREATMENT PLANT
EFFLUENT TO ACIDITY OF CHINGOLA STREAMS: (KAFUE RIVER)
THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY
School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
Department of Chemistry
ASSESSING THE CONTRIBUTION OF ACID MINE
DRAINAGE TO THE ACIDITY OF CHINGOLA STREAMS
(KAFUE RIVER)
IN CHINGOLA, COPPERBELT, ZAMBIA
A dissertation submitted to the Copperbelt University in fulfilment of the

requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Chemistry
By
Mulaye Mukala
STUDENT NUMBER: 14205060
SUPERVISOR: Mr Hayumbu Patrick
Kitwe 2018
Microsoft 1
DECLARATION
I Mulaye Mukala, declare that this thesis is a presentation of my original

research work. Wherever contributions of others are involved, every effort
is made to indicate this clearly, with due reference to the literature, and
acknowledgement of collaborative research and discussions.
Mulaye Mukala
Signature: .
Date: .
Kitwe
Zambia.
i
APPROVAL
The work was done under the guidance of a supervisor as partial
fulfilment for the award of a degree of Bachelor of Science in Chemistry
by the Copperbelt University.
Name: ………………………………………………………………………...
Supervisor/Internal Examiner
Signature: .
Date: .
ii
DEDICATION
I dedicate my work to my Father Benny Kakunga Mukala and my Mother
Kandiye Kakunga Mukala. Your unconditional love and kind support and
continuous encouragement has been and is invaluable to me. To my
siblings Bibusa, Sante, Greenwell and Fredrick you have been very
loving, gracious and uplifting. I thank you all and wish you God’s
blessings in all you do.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are a number of people without whom this thesis might not have
been written, and to whom I am greatly indebted.
My supervisor Mr Patrick Hayumbu, whose guidance, support and

encouragement have carried me throughout the course of this study.
Joshua Kakunga and Pastor KG Lukomona who also greatly supported

me financially with all that I needed and also provided spiritual support
throughout this study.
Pastor David Z Banda thank you for your constant support and
encouragement for believing in me and for your spiritual guidance
throughout my stay at the university.
To my dear classmates Elasto Nsokolo and Innocencia Nyembo for the

support and love you showered on me.
iv
Table of Contents
DECLARATION.............................................................................................................i
APPROVAL..................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION.............................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................iv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS..........................................................................................vi
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................vii
CHAPTER 1.................................................................................................................1
1.0.................................................................................................................................INTRODUCTION
...................................................................................................................................1
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT..........................................................................................1

1.2 PROBLEM JUSTIFICATION........................................................................................2
1.3 OBJECTIVES..................................................................................................................3
1.4 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES.........................................................................................3
CHAPTER 2.................................................................................................................4
2.1FACTORS CONTROLLING FORMATION OF AMD....................................................4
2.1.1 Microbiological Controls.............................................................................................6

2.1.2 Mineralogical Controls................................................................................................6
CHAPTER 3...............................................................................................................13
4.0. DATA TREATMENT....................................................................................................18

4.1: DATA COLLECTION...................................................................................................18
4.2 DATA ANALYSIS......................................................................................................- 27 -
5.1: DISCUSSION...........................................................................................................- 30 -
v
5.2 CONCLUSSION........................................................................................................- 32 -
5.2.3 KAFUE RIVER............................................................................................................- 33 -
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONFOR ACID DRAINAGE MINIMIZATION.....................- 33 -
APPENDIX 1: PHOTO GALLERY ON AMD...............................................................................- 36 -
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AAS Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
AMD Acid Mine Drainage
CBU Copperbelt University
CH Chingola stream
KR Kafue River
MSD Mine Safety Department
MS Mushishima stream
WHO World Health Organisation
ZABS Zambia Bureau of Standards
ZEMA Zambia Environmental Management Agency
NWSC Nkana Water and Sewerage Company
WHO World Health Organization
ZABS Zambia Bureau of Standards
NWASCO National Water Supply and Sanitation Council
GRZ Government Republic of Zambia
WARMA Water Resources Management Agency
NISIR National Institute of Scientific Research
vi
ABSTRACT
The continuous discharge of copper mine waste water in to the Kafue River in
Chingola could alter the ecology of those streams. This study copper mine waste
water in Chingola will seek to evaluate the contributions of acid mine drainage
(AMD) and Nchanga Mine Water Treatment Plant (KCM Water Treatment plant
Plant) to this pollution problem. This research project on AMD in Chingola Area
is a part of the CBU project entitled “Scoping hazard exposure and health risks
from uranium mining processing in Zambia”. In the main project this work will
be done in three seasons (that is, the wet or rainy season – November to April,
the cold dry season – May to July and the hot dry season - August to October)
but this report covers only the cold dry season. Water samples will be collected
¿
and analysed for metals (Fe, Cu, Co, Zn, Ni, and Mn), sulphates ( SO 2−¿
4 ),
conductivity and pH. The results of the study will be compared at two levels.
The first level is comparison AMD acidity with residual acidity of KCM Water
Treatment Plant entering the discharge streams while the second level
comparison will involve comparison of Chingola water samples with potable
water permissible standard limits set by the Zambia Bureau of Standards
(ZABS) and the World Health Organization (WHO).
vii
CHAPTER 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Water is vital to all living organisms on the earth. As the earth’s population
continues to increase rapidly, sodoesthe need for fresh water for various
purposes (e.g. drinking, cooking, washing, carrying wastes, cooling
machines, irrigating, and receiving sewage). While water is important to
human health and other living organisms, it should be noted that if it
is improperly managed, it can be a source of health hazards to
humans and ecological hazards to other living organism and the
environment.
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Water is a critical resource for mining projects. From a sustainable
mining perspective, management and protection of both process
water and waste water is of paramount importance to every mine.
Increased acidity of water can destroy living organisms and can
make water arising from poorly controlled mining activities be of
unacceptable quality for potable water and various other water uses.
 Acidity due to AMD can destroy aquatic life and consequently

affect the food chain in the rivulet microenvironments and their
river basin. It also leads to loss of biodiversity and is a hazard
to human health.
 Contamination of water due to mine effluents that are not

properly treated to safe levels and have enhanced mobility due
to acidity often lead to high concentration of pollutants such as;
1
 Metals, oxidised sulphide minerals, dissolved solids or salts can

negatively affect surface water aquatic systems and ground
water quality. For instance, impacts on aquatic life include
increased morbidity (health or reproductive problems, reduction
in number of species present) and mortality. Impacts on human
health occur where the quality of water supplies for various
applications such as for domestic use.
1.2 PROBLEM JUSTIFICATION

Inadequate support to water regulatory authorities who, amongst
other things, conduct water environmental monitoring programs
precludes water environmental management strategies that assess
and minimize impacts of water contamination by the Zambia
Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA), the Water Resources
Management Authority (WARMA) and their stakeholders.
For instance, the afore mentioned marginal support ZEMA may lead
to inadequately enforced environmental regulations on mining
industries on the Copperbelt due to paucity of analytical data of the
chemical species associated with AMD and mine waste water from
accredit able national environmental laboratories based at national
research or academic institutions,
Regulatory authorities must have sufficient reliable information on the

concentration of species in mine effluent water and those associated with
AMD. This project continuous the various activities of CBU aimed at
enhancing environmental measurements in various mining communities
2
1.3 OBJECTIVES.
The overall objective of this study is to investigate the chemical
species associated with acid mine drainage and mine effluent water
in the three selected streams namely: Chingola Stream,
Mushishima, and Stream and the Kafue River.
1.4 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES.

I. To disaggregate contributions of AMD and mine plant effluent
water to acidity in selected streams
II. To determine the concentration of various species (Cu, Fe, Ni,
¿
Co, Mn, Zn and SO 2−¿
4 pH and the conductivity of water.
III. To compare the measured analyte concentrations, pH and
conductivity to the permissible limits set by the ZABS and WHO
3
CHAPTER 2
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Acid Mine Drainage is a major problem with many hard rock mines,
including almost all mines where the metal ore is bound up with
sulphur (metal sulphide mines). Acid mine drainage is a worldwide
problem, leading to ecological destruction and the contamination of
human water resources by sulphuric acid and heavy metals
including cadmium and arsenic.(Jaynes, Jaynes, D. B., 1991,
"Modeling Acid Mine Drainage from Reclaimed Coal Strip Mines," in
Proceedings Second International ConferenSeptember 16-18, 1991)
All mining companies have a common problem which is the disposal

of waste water, which may be alkaline or acidic containing dissolved
metal ions and other chemicals.(WASTEWATER RECYCLE, 1999 )
The effects and treatment of AMD and mine waste water have been
the subject of intensive research since the 1960s. The major areas of
research are prediction and prevention or mitigation.(Skousen J. G.,
1987)
2.1FACTORS CONTROLLING FORMATION OF AMD

A complex series of chemical weathering reactions are
spontaneously initiated when surface mining activities expose soil
materials to an oxidizing environment (Deutch, 1997). The mineral
components contained in the soil are not in equilibrium with the
oxidising environment and almost immediately begin weathering
and mineral transformations. The reactions are analogous to
"geologic weathering" which takes place over extended periods of
4
time (i.e., hundreds to thousands of years) but the rates of reaction

are orders of magnitude greater than in "natural" weathering
systems. The accelerated reaction rates can release damaging
quantities of acidity, metals, and other soluble components into the
environment. The pyrite oxidation process has been extensively
studied and has been reviewed by Nordstrom (1979). The following
equations show the generally accepted sequence of pyrite reactions:
+ ¿( 1) ¿
2−¿+ 4 H ¿
2 +¿+4 SO 4 ¿
2 FeS2 +7 02 +2 H 2 O ⟶ 2 Fe
3+¿ +2 H O (2) ¿
2
2+¿+02 +4 H+ ¿⟶ 4 Fe ¿
¿
4 Fe
+¿( 3)¿
O ⟶ 4 Fe(OH )3 +12 H ¿
4 Fe3+¿+1 2 H 2
+¿ (4) .¿
2−¿ +16 H ¿
2+¿+ 2 SO4 ¿
3+¿+8 H 2 O ⟶ 15 Fe ¿
FeS2 +14 Fe
In the initial step, pyrite reacts with oxygen and water to produce
ferrous iron, sulphate and acidity. The second step involves the
conversion of ferrous iron to ferric iron. This second reaction has
been termed the "rate determining" step for the overall sequence.
The third step involves the hydrolysis of ferric iron with water to
form the solid ferric hydroxide (ferrihydrite) and the release of
additional acidity. This third reaction is pH dependent. Under very
acidic conditions of less than about pH3.5, the solid mineral does
not form and ferric iron remains in solution. At higher pH values, a
precipitate forms, commonly referred to as "yellowboy." The fourth
step involves the oxidation of additional pyrite by ferric iron. The
ferric iron is generated by the initial oxidation reactions in steps one
and two. This cyclic propagation of acid generation by iron takes
place very rapidly and continues until the supply of ferric iron or
pyrite is exhausted. Oxygen is not required for the fourth reaction to
5
occur. The overall pyrite reaction series is among the most acid-
producing of all weathering processes in nature.
2.1.1 Microbiological Controls

The pyrite weathering process is a series of chemical reactions, but
also has an important microbiological component. The conversion
of ferrous to ferric iron in the overall pyrite reaction sequence has
been described as the "rate determining step" (Singer and Stumm,
1970). This conversion can be greatly accelerated by a species of
bacteria, Thiobacillus ferroxidans. This bacteria and several other
species thought to be involved in pyrite weathering, are widespread
in the environment. T. ferroxidans has been shown to increase the
iron conversion reaction rate by a factor of hundreds to as much
as one million times (Singer and Stumm, 1970; Nordstrom, 1979).
The activity of these bacteria is pH dependent with optimal
conditions in the range of pH2 to 3. Thus, once pyrite oxidation
and acid production has begun, conditions are favourable for
bacteria to further accelerate the reaction rate. At pH values of
about 6 and above, bacterial activity is thought to be insignificant
or comparable to abiotic reaction rates. The catalysing effect of the
bacteria effectively removes constraints on pyrite weathering and
allows the reactions to proceed rapidly. The role of microbes in
pyrite oxidation is described in more detail by Kleinmann and
others (1981) and Nordstrom (1979).
2.1.2 Mineralogical Controls

The mineral pyrite occurs in several different morphological forms
and a range of grain sizes. The “Framboids” form is considered
highly reactive and is characterized by a small grain size and large
surface area (Caruccio and others, 1977). Pyrite can occur in grain
sizes ranging from invisible to the eye up to several inches.
6
Framboids and other fine grained pyrites with a large surface area
are much more chemically reactive than the coarser forms
(Evangelou, 1995). The reactivity of fine grained pyrites reflects the
fact that acid generating reactions occur at the mineral surface
Acid/Base Balance and Reaction Rates Drainage and spoil quality

is a product of two competing processes: acid formation from pyrite
oxidation, and generation of alkalinity from dissolution of
carbonates and other basic minerals. The acid generation process
consists of three phases: initiation; propagation; and termination.
The initiation phase can begin as soon as pyritic materials are
exposed to an oxidizing environment, however, the acid load
generated is relatively small. In the propagation phase, and acid
production increase rapidly. In the termination phase, acid
production gradually declines. The actual times associated with
these phases are, at present, ill-defined, but appear to be on the
order of years to decades. Modelling predictions and comparison to
a limited number of field sites indicate the peak acid load occurs 5
to 10 years after mining, followed by a gradual decline over 20 to
40 years (Ziemkiewicz and others, 1991; Hart and others, 1991).
The same studies project very long decay curves for coal refuse
(beyond 50 years) before acid leachate is depleted. Reliable acid
generation/depletion predictions for underground mine discharges
are not available.
The overall acid-producing process can proceed very rapidly with

few chemical constraints. In contrast, dissolution or reaction rates
of many common minerals is generally slow due to solubility
limitations. Production of alkalinity tends to attain a constant
value or level off with time so that the rate of acid production
commonly may exceed the production of alkalinity. The trends in
7
reaction rates can be offset or enhanced by the mass balance

between acid and alkaline producing minerals. A general relation
between acid and basic minerals and resultant drainage quality is
described as follows:
 Low pyrite, low base content - Drainage may contain low

levels of acidity, or maybe non-acid. Low concentrations of
dissolved metals.
• Low pyrite, high base content - Drainage is alkaline with low

concentrations of dissolved metals.
• High pyrite, low base content - Drainage is acidic with high

concentrations of dissolved metals.
• High pyrite, high base content - Drainage is usually alkaline,

occasionally acidic, with high concentrations of dissolved
metals. The conditions most conducive to acid formation are
high pyrite contents with little base material present.
Conversely, an excess of base relative to pyrite is most likely to
preclude acid formation. Sites containing low quantities of
pyrite and bases produce the most variable drainage quality
and are the most difficult to assess with pre-mining predictive
techniques.
8
2.2 FORMATION OF MINE WASTE WATER
A mine generates large amounts of highly concentrated waste water

due to contact between water and various types of minerals. The
origins of these effluents can be found in the distinct processes
undertaken in mining, in addition to drainage from rainfall.
Mining effluents are caused by; wash waters, flow process acids,
water leaching, floatation and concentration, effluents from refining
and gas scrubbers. Meanwhile, rain that infiltrates the tailings of the
mine can also cause oxidation, hydrolysis, washing etc. producing
highly contaminated wastewater. The contact between minerals and
water either by process or rain can produce distinct reactions. The
effluents produced are of diverse compositions, depending upon the
nature of each mineral, since there are those more or less soluble,
hydrolysable and non-hydrolysable as well as sorbents and non-
sorbents. Thus, the discharge of such waste water can provoke
serious consequences in mining and its environment by completely
altering water chemistry.
9
2.3 EFFECTS OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE AND WASTE WATER
Water contaminated with high concentrations of sulphide minerals,

dissolved solids, metals or salts can negatively affect surface water
quality, aquatic ecosystems and ground water quality.
Poor water quality affects human beings, animals as well as on other

environmental materials which come in contact with that water in
the following ways:
I. Effects of acidity
 Disturbs the reproductive system of aquatic life and thus
may decrease their population
 Formation of sink holes
 Loss of biodiversity
 Contamination of surface and ground water
¿
II. Sulphates ( SO 2−¿
4 )
 Dehydration
 Diarrhoea
 Astringent taste of water
 Severe, chronic diarrhoea for animals
 In a few instances causes death in animals
 Corrodes plumbing materials
III. Effects of metals
 Reduced growth and development
10
 Cancer
 Nervous system damage
 And in extreme cases death
IV Effects of pH
This ranges from 0 to 14.A pH value below seven denotes acidic
water while a pH below seven denotes alkaline water.
 Water with an elevated pH above 11 can cause skin, eye and
mucous membrane irritation
 Water with a low pH has corrosive effects
 Acidic water increases solubility of metals
2.4 PAST AND PRESENT STUDIES ON ACID MINE DRAINAGE
Research has been done to demonstrate the effect of wastes from

mining industries on freshwater. Some of which are highlighted:
 In 2005,V. Aphane and P.D. Vermeulen from Institute of

Groundwater Studies, University of the Free State,
Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa;(Vermeulen, 2005)
email: vaphane@ymail.com assessed the effects of the
Waterberg coalfield on nearby waters. In their findings they
concluded that the coal seam has the highest potential of
producing acid, whilst the majority of the overburden which
consists of carbonaceous shale will act as an acid
neutraliser. Leaching of heavy metals is evident when the pH
decreases which can be used as an indication of the post
mining environment, there is an evidence of increase in
concentration in sulphate and iron. Over 35% to 50% of the
samples have an excess of acid potential which classifies the
samples as having a higher risk for acid generation. About
11
30% to 40% of the samples have a higher neutralise

potential, the rest of the samples have a medium acid risk
generation.
 The area of study has a rainfall average of less than
500mm/with an estimated high evaporation of 2000mm/a
and consists of two dominant surface water features which
is the Mokolo and the Limpopo river. Though high rainfall
which may lead to floods does not seem like a probability in
this area, but in the case of it occurring the two rivers which
act as drainage systems will be greatly affected.
 In January 2010 a group of researchers T. N. published a
full length research paper titled “Influence of mine drainage
on water quality along River Nyaba in Enugu South-Eastern
Nigeria” in which they showed how Major and Trace
elements concentration were measured in water samples
collected in and around Okpara coal mine in Enugu South
Eastern Nigeria to investigate the influence of mine drainage
on the quality of water.(T. N. Nganje1*, 2010)
 In September 1993 Mr Israel H.M. Zandonda, presented at
the first African Symposium on Mine Drainage and
Environmental Protection from Waste Water Disposal in
Chililabombwe, Zambia, the effect of industrial Pollution on
Kafue River.
2.5 PAST AND PRESENT RESEACHES ON MINE WASTE WATER
A study titled the formation of high density sludge from mine water with
low iron concentrations assessed how the high-density sludge (HDS)
process is recognised as the preferred method of treating mine water
12
containing high metal concentrations.(richard coulton, 2010)

P.G.Kihlstedt assessed the waste water in metal mining industries.
(P.G.Kihlstedt, 2009).
CHAPTER 3
3.0 METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, the research methodology explains how the proposed

study was done. It gives details the sampling points, the sample
collection, the sample preparation, as well as procedures and
instruments used.
3.1 SAMPLING POINTS
Eight grab samples and one composite were collected every 100 meters
along the Kafue River.
Table of Kafue River Sampling Points and Samples from There
Sample Code Location Longitude Latitude
KA18R1-1 Hippo Pool village 27º51’2.42’’E 12º27’58’’S
KA18R1-2 Hippo Pool village 27º50’42’’E 12º27’25.97’’S
KA18R1-3 Hippo Pool village 27º50’43.54’’E 12º27’43.72’’S
KA18R1-6 Kafue Bridge 27º51’5.75’’E 12º27’49.57’’S
KA18R1-7 Kafue Bridge 27º51’15.57’’E 12º27’41.27’’S
KA18R1-8 Fikolongo village 27º51’22.21’’E 12º27’45.20’’ S
KA18R1-9 Composite
13
3.2 SAMPLE COLLECTION
Eight grab samples and one composite sample where collected along
Kafue River at every 100 meters starting in Hippo Pool Village. Each
sample collected was placed in a 500ml polyethylene bottle, measured for
temperature conductivity and total dissolved solids (TDS). The sample
was then acidified with 50% nitric acid (HNO3) to a pH of less than 4
The field conductivity meter probe was calibrate before each

measurement with 0.01M sodium chloride. The samples were then
refrigerated at temperature of 4 ℃
3.3 SAMPLE PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS
3.3.1 Field Parameters
The following parameters were determined at the sampling location.
3.3.1.1 CONDUCTIVITY
Conductivity k is the ability of an aqueous solution to carry an electric

current. This ability depends on the presence of ions; on their total
concentration, mobility and valence; and on temperature of
measurement. Conductivity is reported in mili-Siemens per meter
(mS/m) or micro- Siemens (µS/cm) per Centimetre.
A conductivity meter was calibrated using 0.01M Sodium chloride, it

then used to determine the conductivity of the water samples collected
(Eugene W. Rice, 2012)
3.3.1.2 Temperature
Temperature was determined using a temperature probe connected to

the pH meter.
3.3.1.4 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

14
Dissolved solids refer to any minerals, salts, metals, cations or anions

dissolved in water. Total dissolved solids in water comprise inorganic
salts (principally calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, bicarbonates,
chlorides and sulphates) and some small amounts of organic matter.(Mr.
Brian Oram, 2018)
A conductivity metre was used to determine Total dissolved solids.
3.3.2 Laboratory parameters
3.3.2.1 Heavy Metals
a) Apparatus
 Hot plate
 Conical (Erlenmeyer)flasks
 Volumetric flasks
 Watch glasses
b) Reagent
 Nitric Acid HNO3, concentrated
c) Procedure
 A measured volume of 100ml of well mixed, acid preserved sample

appropriate for the expected metals concentrations was transferred
to a 500ml beaker placed in fume hood
 In the hood, 5mls of concentrated nitric acid was added to a the
sample in the beaker and covered with a watch glass to minimize
contamination
 Sample was evaporated on a hot plate to a volume between 10 and
20ml
15
 Heating and addition of concentrated nitric acid was continued

until digestion was complete as shown by a light coloured clear
solution
 The sample was then filtered and transferred to a 100ml
volumetric flask
 Then the sample was cooled and diluted to the mark and mixed
thoroughly
 Subsequently, portions of sample were taken the volumetric flask
for the required heavy metal analysis
3.3.2.2 Sulphate
¿
Sulphate ion ( SO 2−¿
4 ) was precipitated in an acetic acid medium with
barium chloride (BaCl2) so as to form barium sulphate (BaSO4) crystals of
uniform size. Light absorbance of the barium sulphate was measured by
¿
a photometer and the SO 2−¿
4 SO concentrations of samples were
determined from the reading curve.
a) Apparatus
 Magnetic stirrer
b) Photometer
A spectrophotometer (can you specify type) with a light path of 2.5
to 10 cm was used to read absorbance at 420nm.
c) Reagents
 Buffer solution A
 Buffer solution B
 Barium chloride
 Standard sulphate solution
d) Procedure
16
 A standard calibration curve was made by taking the following

volumes From the 100 ppm standard solutions: 10 ml, 20 ml,
40 ml and 80 ml into 100 ml volumetric flask and filled up to
the mark.
 5 ml of conditioning reagent was added and mixed for a minute
then 0.5 g BaCl2 added.
 After 2 minutes of BaCl2 addition, sample was shaken, the
absorbance of the resulting solution was then read, a
milky/whitish colour at 420 nm wavelength on the UV-Vis.
 For samples; 100 ml of samples was taken, 5 ml of conditioning
reagent was added and mixed for a minute then 0.5 g BaCl 2
added.
 After 2 minutes of BaCl2 addition, the sample was shaken and
the absorbance of the resulting solution was read.
17
4.0. DATA TREATMENT

This chapter shows analysis results for each water sample
concentrations of each species that are that collate with water acidity
and AMD.
4.1: DATA COLLECTION

The following tables show the data collected for the analysis of total
dissolved solids (TDS), conductivity which were determined in the field as
well as concentrations of common heavy metals (Cu, Fe, Zn, Co, Mn,
¿
Ni)in the river, SO 2−¿
4 and pH of a composite sample.
18
THE ASSESSMENT OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE AND NCHANGA MINE WATER TREATMENT PLANT EFFLUENT TO ACIDITY OF CHINGOLA STREAMS: (KAFUE RIVER)
Table 1: Sample Analysis
KA18R19
RUN
PARAMETE KA18R1
NUMBE KA18R12 KA18R13 KA18R14 KA18R15 KA18R16 KA18R17 KA18R18
R 1 COMPOSIT
R
E
TDS
Mg/l Run 1 86.9 85.4 86.3 87.3 86.3 86.1 88.4 86.9 87.6
Conductivity
µS/L
Run 1 170.5 170.5 171.1 171.6 168.9 167.6 168.3 169.0 167.6
Run 1 49.8 45.2 46.9 41.8 47.0 44.9 48.9 40.5 45.8
SO42 Run 2 50.5 49.8 46.9 42.0 50.0 46.9 40.4 44.9 49.7
Run 3 42.0 43.7 40.0 48.0 45.0 48.0 46.9 48.9 42.5
19
KA18R19
RUN
PARAMETE KA18R1
R 1 COMPOSIT
R
E
Mean 47.43 46.23 44.6 43.9 47.33 46.6 45.4 44.76 46
Std 4.71 3.17 3.98 3.52 2.51 1.57 6.3 4.2 3.60
Run 1 7.0
Run 2 6.5
Run 3 6.0
pH
Mean 3.0
Std 4.3
Run 1 0.15 0.3 0.45 0.45 0.9 0.15 0.9 0.45 0.3
Run 2 0.12 0.19 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.12 0.8 0.4 0.27
Cu
(mg/L)
Run 3 0.14 0.21 0.42 0.42 0.82 0.15 0.82 0.44 0.30
20
KA18R19
RUN
PARAMETE KA18R1
R 1 COMPOSIT
R
E
Mean 0.14 0.23 0.42 0.42 0.84 0.14 0.84 0.43 0.87
0.02 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.71
Std
21
KA18R19
RUN
PARAMETE KA18R1
R 1 COMPOSIT
R
E
Run 1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Run 2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Fe
Mg/L Run 3 0.6 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Mean 1.00 0.8 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13
Std 0.85 0.69 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Run 1 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.6
Zn
Run 2 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2
22
KA18R19
RUN
PARAMETE KA18R1
R 1 COMPOSIT
R
E
Mg/L
Run 3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3
Mean 0.8 0.33 0.37 0.37 0.53 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.37
0.5 0.06 0.15 0.15 0.21 0.06 0.007 0.21 0.21
Std
Run 1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3
Co
Run 2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1
Mg/L
Run 3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
23
KA18R19
RUN
PARAMETE KA18R1
R 1 COMPOSIT
R
E
Mean 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.16 0.13 0.13 0.16 0.16 0.16
Std 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.12 0.05 0.05 0.12 0.12 0.12
Ni Run 1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Mg/L
Run 2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Run 3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2
Mean 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.16 0.1 0.1 0.13 0.13 0.13
24
KA18R19
RUN
PARAMETE KA18R1
R 1 COMPOSIT
R
E
Std 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.05 0.05 0.05
Run 1 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Mn
(mg/L) Run 2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Run 3 0.01 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Mean 0.12 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21
25
KA18R19
RUN
PARAMETE KA18R1
R 1 COMPOSIT
R
E
Std 0.11 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18
26
4.2 DATA ANALYSIS

The table below shows mean concentrations for the three trials for each
parameter compared to the standard limits set by ZABS and WHO.
Table 2: Mean pH, Heavy Metals (ppm) and SulphateConcentrations

(ppm)
Metals Mean WHO ZABS

standards standards
pH 6.4 6.5 – 8.0
Cu 3.7 2.00 1.00
Fe 1.1 0.01 0.3
Co 1.3 0.5
Zn 3.3 3.00
Ni 1.2 0.07 0.20
Mn 0.6 0.050 0.10

2−¿ ¿
SO 4 412 250 400
27
4.5
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
Cu Fe Zn Co Mn Ni
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Figure 1: Shows the contributions of each metal for each trial
sulphates (mg/L)
405 410.8
421.1
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Figure 2: Shows the concentrations of sulphates for each trial
28
(√ )
n
The table below shows the standard deviation ∑ ( X i− X )2 of the results

i=1
n−1
for the Kafue River.
Table 3: Standard deviations of measurements (with metal/sulphate

concentration in ppm)
Parameter Trial 1
Ph 0.36
Cu 0.28
Fe 0.46
Co 0.31
Zn 0.07
Ni <0.0001
Mn 0.046
2−¿ ¿
SO 4 8.1
Combining data of Table 4 and Table 5 so that the mean for each
parameter is cited with the 95% confidence interval of the mean of n
samples with a standard deviation s given by the formula
ts
confidence interval=± results in data given in Table 6.
√n
Table 4: Metals/sulphate concentrations (in ppm) at 95% confidence
limit
Metal WHO ZABS

s standard standard
29
s s
pH 3±1.4 6.5 – 8.0
Cu 3.70±0.09 2.00 1.00
Fe 1.1±0.15 0.01 0.30
Co 1.33±0.10 0.50
Zn 3.3±0.023 3.00
Ni 1.2± 0.07 0.20

(<0.0001)
Mn 0.6±0.015 0.050 0.10

2−¿ ¿
SO 4 412.3±2.7 250 400
5.1: DISCUSSION
In this study we set out to disaggregate AMD and general acidity from
Nchanga mine but were permitted to collect all the samples and sites
that could enable us to do this. Therefore we ended up measuring acidity
and other parameters correlatable to it in the Kafue River.
The composite results obtained in this study were generally higher

compared to those obtained in a previous study done last year.
Table showing the mean results obtained in last year’s study and those
obtained in this year’s study.
Metals Mean Mean WHO ZABS

standards standards
(This (Last
year) year)
pH 6.4 4.89 6.5 – 8.0
Cu 3.7 3.269 2.00 1.00

30
Fe 1.1 0.459 0.01 0.3
Co 1.3 0.706 0.5
Zn 3.3 3.677 3.00
Ni 1.2 0.090 0.07 0.20
Mn 0.6 0.309 0.050 0.10

2−¿ ¿
SO 4 412 417 250 400
Environmental impacts from mining operations are significant and quite

often severe, especially developing nations which lack adequate
management of the sector. In Zambia, impacts from mining results from
both historical and ongoing mining operations, and the majority of them
is located on the Copperbelt province. Recent investment in exploration
and mining development have, however, led to new operations also in
other provinces. The main environmental problems associated with
mining is water pollution due to Acid mine Drainage.
The governmental framework that regulates the mining sectors

environmental compliance is centered on ZEMA. Existing laws and
regulations regarding environmental performance are relatively up to
date in Zambia; the main problem is that the implementation is not
satisfactory. Partially this is explained by lack of coordination between
institutions but also to a large extent on the lack of man power and
technical capacity. A special concern is the lack of supervision towards
active industry and generally low quality of Environmental impact
assessment (EIA) reports compiled used in the license process.
Heavy metals such as Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Co are an important part of the
human diet as trace elements, others are toxic in even low
concentrations. For example Iron is an essential element for blood
production. About 70% of the bodies iron is found in the red blood cells
of the human blood called haemoglobin and in the muscle cells called
myoglobin. Haemoglobin is essential for transferring oxygen in your
31
blood from the lungs to the tissues. The most common iron overload
disorder is hereditary hemochromatosis, overtime untreated
hemochromatosis increases the risk of arthritis, cancer, liver problems,
diabetes and heart failure. (Atli Arnarson, 2017).
Excess Cu had been associated with liver damage and Zn may produce
adverse nutrient interactions with Cu. Also, Zn reduces immune function
and the levels of high density lipoproteins (Spears, 2000). Ni helps form
enzymes that are needed in the formation of nucleic acids and DNA, but
highly toxic at high concentration. It can cause gastrointestinal distress,
increase red blood cells and reduce lung functions (Lu, 2005).
5.2 CONCLUSSION
The parameters of the Kafue are indicative of acidic waters, these
parameters exceeded the set limits by the World Health Organisation and
ZABS. It would have been helpful for this study to have measured a site
upstream of the streams that bring Nchanga mine effluents.
AMD is a huge environmental problem throughout Copperbelt wherever

it controls are not in place and it will continue to be a big problem until
the sources of the pollution can be remediated. Copper mining
throughout the area has potential to cause many of the streams, rivers,
and lakes in the area to be polluted with heavy metals. Generally, it can
be concluded that wherever there are lax AMD controls the
concentrations of metals leached as a result of acid mine from mines
exceed the permissible limits set by WHO (WHO, 2011) and ZABS. This
study revealed that water from Chingola streams is not good for human
consumption. Comparing concentrations of some metals, sulphate and
and pH values of water samples of the study to the ZABS/WHO
permissible limits showed that during the study period, Nchanga Mine
had uncontrollable or poorly controlled pollution effects that affected its
streams and the Kafue River. On the Copperbelt Province of Zambia it is
32
noteworthy that most residents get freshwater from the Kafue River.
Apart from contributing to poor drinking water quality, poorly controlled
AMD can cause problems for the flora and fauna that rely on the Kafue
River’s system for their habitat and has caused the orange colour that
many of the rivers have which is not aesthetically pleasing. The rivers in
the area must first be prioritized by the degree of pollution and then the
high priority areas of the stream should be the first to be remediated. To
prioritize the rivers in Copperbelt, the water quality data must be used to
formulate a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) (Sadak, 2008). The TMDL
data identifies the sampling sites that have the greatest amount of heavy
metals present and these sites become high priority for remediation.
Most often the high priority sites are located at mine discharges. If the
problem at the source of pollution can be taken care of, then the heavy
metals will not be a problem downstream.
5.2.3 KAFUE RIVER

As pointed out earlier, Kafue River is one of the sources for freshwater for
many Copperbelt residents. Many polluted streams from the mine flow
into Kafue River, most Villages that are near, get untreated drinking
water from Kafue River. From the data obtained clearly showed that this
untreated water in Kafue River is not health for drinking. The figure
below shows polluted Kafue River near Hippo Pool Village.
33
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONFOR ACID DRAINAGE MINIMIZATION

Acidic drainage from mines is observed at many mine sites and the
undesirable consequences of acidification are well known. Every effort
should be made to minimize the causes of acid generation. Because
mineralogy and other factors that influence AMD formation are highly
variable from one mine to another, and among different geologic
materials within a proposed mine site, accurate prediction of future acid
generation is difficult at best (Skousen, 1998). Predicting the potential for
AMD formation is costly, and of questionable reliability (Kuipers-et-al,
2006). In addition, concern has arisen over the lag time between waste
emplacement and observation of an acid drainage problem. With acid
generation, there is no general method to predict its long-term duration
or to predict when acidic drainage will commence. There are historical
and now modern mining examples of long-term AMD generation
requiring active treatment in perpetuity (Reclamation Research Group,
June 2008).
There are two primary approaches to addressing AMD:
 Circumvent mining sulphide rich ore deposits with high AMD

potential.
 Implementing mitigation measures to limit potential AMD impacts.
34
It is noted that avoiding mining of sulphide ores with the potential to

form AMD may be difficult because they are most often associated with
the mineral resource of interest. In some mining operations acid-forming
minerals can be avoided through the mine planning process or through
using underground mining rather than surface mining. Mine waste
isolation and avoidance of oxidizing conditions can be performed using
several methods that keep sulphides isolated from oxygen.
Many research investigations should be conducted by university,

government, and industrial entities to develop new treatment strategies
for AMD. Thorough baselines studies of the biological, hydrologic, and
geochemical conditions characteristic of the unique site are required to
provide a basis for long-term monitoring and provide an insight into
mechanistic processes involved in AMD evolution (Edwards, 2000).
Associated financial assurances for resource mitigation in the event of

default of a mine property are also required to ensure both short-term
and long-term mitigation of AMD and the associated impacts to water
quality and fisheries. It is noteworthy that an increase in funding for
remediation projects must occur in order to complete and maintain the
various remediation techniques that would be in place throughout the
rivers. (NRC, 1999)
The government together with other environmental management

agencies (ZEMA and MSD) should come up with a project initiation
campaign in Zambian Universities and research institutions to
investigate and monitor AMD at different mine sites. These
environmental management agencies and their collaborators should pool
environmental research information on the generation of mine acid and
its impact on Zambian freshwater.
35
APPENDIX 1: PHOTO GALLERY ON AMD
Figure 3: Kafue River
Figure 4: Effect of AMD at Kafue River Bridge
36
Figure 4: Polluted Kafue River Water
Figure 5: polluted Kafue River water near
Hippo pool Village
37
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THE ASSESSMENT OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE AND NCHANGA MINE WATER TREATMENT PLANT

EFFLUENT TO ACIDITY OF CHINGOLA STREAMS: (KAFUE RIVER)

THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences

ASSESSING THE CONTRIBUTION OF ACID MINE

DRAINAGE TO THE ACIDITY OF CHINGOLA STREAMS

IN CHINGOLA, COPPERBELT, ZAMBIA

A dissertation submitted to the Copperbelt University in fulfilment of the

I Mulaye Mukala, declare that this thesis is a presentation of my original

The work was done under the guidance of a supervisor as partial

fulfilment for the award of a degree of Bachelor of Science in Chemistry

by the Copperbelt University.

My supervisor Mr Patrick Hayumbu, whose guidance, support and

Joshua Kakunga and Pastor KG Lukomona who also greatly supported

To my dear classmates Elasto Nsokolo and Innocencia Nyembo for the

1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT..........................................................................................1

2.1FACTORS CONTROLLING FORMATION OF AMD....................................................4

2.1.1 Microbiological Controls.............................................................................................6

4.0. DATA TREATMENT....................................................................................................18

AMD Acid Mine Drainage

CBU Copperbelt University

MSD Mine Safety Department

WHO World Health Organisation

ZABS Zambia Bureau of Standards

ZEMA Zambia Environmental Management Agency

NWSC Nkana Water and Sewerage Company

WHO World Health Organization

ZABS Zambia Bureau of Standards

NWASCO National Water Supply and Sanitation Council

GRZ Government Republic of Zambia

WARMA Water Resources Management Agency

NISIR National Institute of Scientific Research

1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

 Acidity due to AMD can destroy aquatic life and consequently

 Contamination of water due to mine effluents that are not

 Metals, oxidised sulphide minerals, dissolved solids or salts can

1.2 PROBLEM JUSTIFICATION

Regulatory authorities must have sufficient reliable information on the

1.4 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

All mining companies have a common problem which is the disposal

2.1FACTORS CONTROLLING FORMATION OF AMD

time (i.e., hundreds to thousands of years) but the rates of reaction

2.1.1 Microbiological Controls

2.1.2 Mineralogical Controls

Acid/Base Balance and Reaction Rates Drainage and spoil quality

The overall acid-producing process can proceed very rapidly with

reaction rates can be offset or enhanced by the mass balance

 Low pyrite, low base content - Drainage may contain low

• Low pyrite, high base content - Drainage is alkaline with low

• High pyrite, low base content - Drainage is acidic with high

• High pyrite, high base content - Drainage is usually alkaline,

2.2 FORMATION OF MINE WASTE WATER

A mine generates large amounts of highly concentrated waste water

2.3 EFFECTS OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE AND WASTE WATER

Water contaminated with high concentrations of sulphide minerals,

Poor water quality affects human beings, animals as well as on other

2.4 PAST AND PRESENT STUDIES ON ACID MINE DRAINAGE

Research has been done to demonstrate the effect of wastes from

 In 2005,V. Aphane and P.D. Vermeulen from Institute of

30% to 40% of the samples have a higher neutralise

2.5 PAST AND PRESENT RESEACHES ON MINE WASTE WATER