SUB NAME & CODE: PRACTICAL: SEM:

PRACTICAL: 1
AIM: Measure a given unknown pressure using U-tube manometer.

OBJECTIVES:
1)To understand concept of U-tube manometer.
2) To develop the ability to take correct manometer reading.

EQUIPMENT LIST:
Simple U tube manometer

DESCRIPTION:
The manometer is the simplest measuring instrument used for gauge pressure (low-range
pressure) measurement, by balancing the pressure against the weight of a column of liquid, the action of
all manometers depends on the effect of pressure exerted by a fluid at a depth.
The U-tube is the simplest form of manometer and is used for experimental work in
laboratories. By suitable choice of liquids, a wide range of pressure can be recorded.

Construction:
It consists of transparent (glass) tube constructed in the form of an elongated U and is
partially filled with a liquid, most commonly water or mercury. Water and mercury are used because their
specific weights for various temperature are known exactly and they do not stick to the tube. One end of
the tube is connected to one pressure tap and other end of tap is connected to the other pressure tap, or
it may be left open to the atmosphere. The U-tube manometer is shown in Figure.

Working:
When there is a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube, the liquid level
goes down on one side of the tube and up on the other side. The difference in liquid levels from one side
to the other indicates the difference in pressure. From above Figure the differential pressure (P 1-P2) is
obtained by the relation:

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(P1-P2) = (ρ-ρ1) (h1-h2) g

Or P = (ρ-ρ1) hg

Where ρ = density of fluid in U-tube

ρ1= density of fluid whose pressure is being measured
h = (h1-h2), difference in fluid levels
g = acceleration due to gravity

When a manometer is used to measure low pressures then water is used as the liquid,
and when it is used to measure high pressure then mercury is used as the liquid. Mercury is almost 14
times as heavy as water. Therefore the difference in levels in a mercury-filled manometer is about 1/14
of what it would be if water were in the tube.

The manometric liquid used should fulfill the following requirements:-

1. It should not mix with the flowing fluid.
2. It should not chemically react with the flowing fluid or the pipe wall material.
3. It should have higher density than the flowing fluid.
4. It should not stick (adhere) to the tube.
5. Its boiling point should be much higher than the atmospheric temperature.
6. It should be clearly visible.

The mercury level (bottom of the concave meniscus of the mercury) in each limb is read, difference is
calculated which is called deflection.

CONCLUSION:

QUESTION BANK

1) List out the types of manometer.

2) Why mercury is used in manometer?
3) Write down the limitations of U-tube manometer.
4) Manometers are used for gauge pressure measurement. True or false.

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PRACTICAL: 2
AIM: Perform pressure measurement using C-type bourdon tube pressure gauge.

OBJECTIVES:
1)To understand the basic principles of pressure.
2) To understand concept of C-type bourdon tube pressure gauge.

EQUIPMENT LIST:
C-type bourdon tube pressure gauge

DESCRIPTION:
The bourdon tube is the most frequently used pressure gauge because of its simplicity
and rugged construction. It covers ranges from 0-15 psig to 0-100,000 psig, as well as vacuum from 0 to
30 inches of mercury.

Construction:
As seen in the Figure, the pressure input is given to a socket which is soldered to the tube
at the base. The other end or free end of the device is sealed by a tip. This tip is connected to a segmental
lever through an adjustable length link. The lever length may also be adjustable. The segmental lever is
suitably pivoted and the spindle holds the pointer as shown in the Figure. A hair spring is sometimes used
to fasten the spindle of the frame of the instrument to provide necessary tension for proper meshing of
the gear teeth and thereby freeing the system from the backlash. Any error due to friction in the spindle
bearings is known as lost motion. The mechanical construction has to be highly accurate in the case of a
Bourdon Tube Gauge. If we consider a cross-section of the tube, its outer edge will have a larger surface
than the inner portion. The tube walls will have a thickness between 0.01 and 0.05 inches.

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Working:
As the fluid pressure enters the bourdon tube, it tries to be reformed and because of a free tip
available, this action causes the tip to travel in free space and the tube unwinds. The simultaneous actions
of bending and tension due to the internal pressure make a non-linear movement of the free tip. This
travel is suitable guided and amplified for the measurement of the internal pressure. But the main
requirement of the device is that whenever the same pressure is applied, the movement of the tip should
be the same and on withdrawal of the pressure the tip should return to the initial point.
A lot of compound stresses originate in the tube as soon as the pressure is applied. This makes
the travel of the tip to be non-linear in nature. If the tip travel is considerably small, the stresses can be
considered to produce a linear motion that is parallel to the axis of the link. The small linear tip movement
is matched with a rotational pointer movement. This is known as multiplication, which can be adjusted by
adjusting the length of the lever. For the same amount of tip travel, a shorter lever gives larger rotation.
The approximately linear motion of the tip when converted to a circular motion with the link-lever and
pinion attachment, a one-to-one correspondence between them may not occur and distortion results.
This is known as angularity which can be minimized by adjusting the length of the link.
Other than C-type, bourdon gauges can also be constructed in the form of a helix or a spiral. The types
are varied for specific uses and space accommodations, for better linearity and larger sensitivity. For
thorough repeatability, the bourdon tubes materials must have good elastic or spring characteristics. The
surrounding in which the process is carried out is also important as corrosive atmosphere or fluid would
require a material which is corrosion proof. The commonly used materials are phosphor-bronze, silicon-
bronze, beryllium-copper, Inconel, and other C-Cr-Ni-Mo alloys, and so on.
In the case of forming processes, empirical relations are known to choose the tube size, shape and
thickness and the radius of the C-tube. Because of the internal pressure, the near elliptic or rather the
flattened section of the tube tries to expand as shown by the dotted line in the Figure below (a). The same
expansion lengthwise is shown in Figure (b). The arrangement of the tube, however forces an expansion
on the outer surface and a compression on the inner surface, thus allowing the tube to unwind. This is
shown in Figure (c).

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CONCLUSION:

QUESTION BANK

1) What is the range of bourdon tube?

2) List out the material used for bourdon tube.
3) List out the types of bourdon tube.
4) What are the two types of adjustments done in a bourdon tube gauge?

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PRACTICAL : 3
AIM: Perform Pressure Measurement using Diaphragm type pressure gauge.

OBJECTIVES: To understand the working principle ofDiaphragm type pressure gauge.

EQUIPMENT LIST:
Diaphragm type pressure gauge

DESCRIPTION:

Diaphragms are widely used for pressure (gauge pressure) and draft measurements,
particularly in very low ranges. They can detect a pressure differential even in range of 0 to 4 mm. The
diaphragms can be in the form of flat, corrugated or dished plates and the choice depends on the strength
and amount of deflection desired. In high precision instruments the diaphragms are generally used in a
pair, back to back, to form an elastic capsule.

With suitable modification, diaphragm elements can be made to cause changes in

electrical circuits, thus converting pressure movements to electrical signals which can be transmitted to
an indicating or a recording system. Two types of diaphragm are generally used:

(a)Metallic Diaphragm Gauge:

It consists of a thin flexible diaphragm made of material such as brass or bronze. A pointer
is attached to the diaphragm, as shown in Figure 1. The force of pressure against effective area of the
diaphragm causes a deflection of the diaphragm. In some cases the deflection of the diaphragm is opposed
by the spring qualities of the diaphragm itself and in other cases spring is added to limit the deflection of
the diaphragm. The motion of the diaphragm operates an indicating or a recording type of instrument. A
metallic diaphragm gauge is as shown in Figure 1.
This type of gauge is capable of working in any position and is portable, and therefore
well adapted for use or for installation in moving equipment such as aircrafts.

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(b) Slack Diaphragm Gauge:

It is more difficult to measure pressure below the atmospheric pressure because the changes are
small. The full range from atmospheric pressure to a perfect vacuum is only 14.7 psi (1 kg/m 2). Pressure
in this range can be measured with a slight modification of the diaphragm. A diaphragm with a large area
produces a large change in force from a small change in pressure.
Similarly, making the diaphragm slack rather than tight allows it to move a large distance in response to a
small pressure change. A slack diaphragm can be made of rubber or other flexible materials. Figure 2
shows a diagram of a slack diaphragm gauge.
A slack diaphragm gauge with a weak spring and a large area can be used over pressure ranges as
low as 0.01-0.40 mm Hg (torr). It is possible to achieve accuracies of 1-2%.

CONCLUSION:

QUESTION BANK

1) Diaphragms used in pressure application are

(a) Light (b) small in size (c) slack (d) bimetallic
2) Diaphragm is in the shape of_____________ in pressure measurement.
3) Write short note on Diaphragm.

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PRACTICAL : 4
AIM: Test and calibrate a given pressure gauge using Dead Weight Tester.

OBJECTIVES: To learn the use and operation of a pressure Dead Weight Tester.

EQUIPMENT LIST:

Dead Weight Tester.

DESCRIPTION:

Dead-weight piston gauge is used for the measurement of higher steady pressure, and for checking the
elastic diaphragm or Bourdon type of gauge. In the practical form, it is often used as a standard of pressure
measurement. In this type of instrument, the force produced on a piston of known area is measured
directly by the weight it will support. A dead-weight piston gauge is shown in Figure 1.

Construction:

IT consists of a very accurately machined, bored and finished piston which is inserted into a close-fitting
cylinder. The cross-sectional areas of both the piston and the cylinder are known. At the top of the piston
is provided a platform on which the standard weight, of known accuracy, can be placed. An oil reservoir
with a check valve at its bottom is also provided. The oil from the reservoir can be sucked by a
displacement pump on its upward stroke.

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Working:

For calibration purposes, first a known (calculated) weight is placed on the platform and the fluid pressure
is applied on the other end of the piston until enough force is developed to lift the piston-weight
combination and the piston floats freely within the cylinder between limit stops. The error in a dead-
weight tester is less than 0.1%

In order to reduce the friction between the piston and the cylinder, the piston is generally rotated while
a reading is being taken.

No oil must enter the gauge when testing oxygen pressure gauges, because the oil vapour together with
the oxygen will produce an explosive mixer. For pressure up to 300 psig, oxygen gauges may be tested
with water or air.

The accuracies of dead-weight tester are limited due to: (1) the friction between the
cylinder and the piston, (2) the uncertainty in the area of piston, (3) the buoyancy error and (4) gravity
error.

CONCLUSION:

QUESTION BANK

1) Draw dead weight tester and explain how it calibrate other pressure gauge.
2) Dead weight tester is used for
a. Testing dead weight
b. Measuring process pressures accurately
c. Producing high pressures
d. Calibrating pressure instruments
3) How to reduce the friction between the piston and the cylinder in dead weight tester?
4) Limitations of dead-weight tester.

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PRACTICAL: 5
AIM: Perform pressure measurement using LVDT type pressure transducer.

OBJECTIVES:
1) To understand the construction and working of inductive transducer.
2) To understand the graph of displacement vs. output voltage.

EQUIPMENT LIST:

LVDT trainer kit, Multi-meter, C.R.O

DESCRIPTION:

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) the most widely used inductive transducer
for translating the linear motion into electrical signals. A soft iron core provides the magnetic coupling
between a primary coil and two secondary coils, connected in series opposition. When the core is central
and both secondaries are identical, the voltages across them are equal in magnitude. However, the output
is zero as both the secondaries are in series opposition. As the core moves up or down, the induced voltage
of one secondary coil increases while that of the other decreases. The device is very sensitive and is linear
over a wide range of motion.

Construction:
An LVDT consists of three symmetrically spaced coils wound onto an insulated bobbin as shown
in Figure 1. The magnetic core can move within the bobbin and provides a path for the magnetic flux
linkage between the primary and the secondary coils. The motion (from a mechanical input) changes the
characteristics of the flux path and the changes can be detected in the circuit. A ferromagnetic core
(armature) is attached to the transducer sensing shaft (such as bellows).

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Working:

A.C excitation is applied across the primary winding and the movable core varies the coupling
between it and the two secondary windings. When the core is in the center position, the coupling to the
secondary coils is equal. As the core moves away from the center position, the coupling to one secondary,
and hence its output voltage, increases while the coupling and the output voltage of the other secondary
decreases.

Any change in pressure makes the bellows expand or contract. This motion moves the magnetic
core inside the hollow portion of the bobbin. It causes the voltage of one secondary winding to increases,
while simultaneously reducing the voltage in the other secondary winding. The difference of two voltages
appears across the output terminals of the transducers and gives a measure of the physical position of
the core and hence the pressure.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect LVDT terminals to the respective terminals of the power supply according to
color code.
2. Connect multi meter to the output side to measure voltage generated.
3. Power ON the LVDT kit.
4. Apply displacement to the LVDT through micrometer screw and note the displacement in
observation table.
5. Also note the respective voltage from multi meter in observation table.
6. Take few readings for both side of LVDT core movements.
7. Plot Displacement vs Voltage.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. NO. Displacement Voltage
1
2

CONCLUSION:

QUESTION BANK

1) LVDT is
2) List the merits and Demerits of LVDT.
3) What is the moving part of a linear variable differential transformer?
(a) Primary
(b) Secondary
(c) Diaphragm
(d) Core

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4) The principle of operation of LVDT is based on the variation of

(a) Self-inductance
(b) Mutual inductance
(c) Reluctance
(d) Permanence

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PRACTICAL: 6
AIM: Perform pressure measurement using strain gauge type pressure transducer.

OBJECTIVES:
1) Assemble a Wheatstone bridge and use it to measure strain with a strain Gauge.
2) Estimate the uncertainties associated with strain measurements.

EQUIPMENT LIST:

Strain gauge pressure measurement kit

DESCRIPTION:

Strain gauge is a passive type resistance pressure transducer whose electrical resistance changes
when it is stretched or compressed. It can be attached to a pressure sensing diaphragm.

Basic Principle:
The strain gauge is a fine wire which changes its resistance when mechanically strained, due to
physical effect. A strain gauge may be attached to the diaphragm so that when the diaphragm flexes due to
the process pressure applied on it, in the strain gauge stretches or compresses. This deformation of the
strain gauge causes the variation in its length and cross-sectional area due to which its resistance also
changes, as shown in Figure 1.
The resistance changes of a strain gauge is usually converted into voltage by connecting one, two,
or four similar gauges, as of a whetstone bridge(known as stain gauge bridge), and applying excitation to
the bridge. The bridge output voltage is then a measure of the pressure sensed by the strain gauges.

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Construction:
Figure 2. Shows a bridge circuit with four strain gauges, R sg1, R sg2, Rsg3 and R sg4. Two strain gauges,
Rsg1 and R sg4 are mounted so that increasing pressure increases their resistance. Strain gauges R sg2 and Rsg3,
are mounted so that increasing pressure decreases their resistance. A change in temperature affects all the
four strain gauges in the same way, resulting in no change in the pressure indication.

Working:

At balance, when there is no pressure, no current flows through the galvanometer G, and hence
there will be no deflection in the galvanometer. As soon as the pressure is applied, the strain gauge stretches
or compresses accordingly and the bridge circuit is unbalanced due to the change in resistance of the strain
gauges. Thus, a current flows in the galvanometer, which is measured by the deflection of galvanometer.
These changes affect the output of the bridge circuit, which indicates a change in measured pressure. Now,
this change in output voltage may be calibrated for the pressure change.

PROCEDURE:

1) Firstly arrange the pressure transducer, multimeter, voltmeter.

2) After that increase the pressure in the pressure transducer.
3) Set the reading of pressure transducer on a particular reading.
4) Now note the display reading on Kit.
5) Also note the voltmeter & Ammeter readings.
6) Repeat the numbers of reading with different pressure on transducer.
7) Compare the value of pressure applied on transducer & display reading.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. NO. Weight Voltage
1
2

CONCLUSION:

QUESTION BANK

1) Explain basic Principle of strain gauge with neat sketch.

2) List the Merits and Demerits of strain gauge pressure transducer.
3) List the material used for strain gauge.
4) List the types of strain gauge.

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PRACTICAL: 7
AIM: Perform pressure measurement using piezoelectric type pressure transducer.

OBJECTIVES:
1) To understand the principle of piezoelectric effect.
2) Describe the operation and advantages of the piezoelectric pressure Transducer.

EQUIPMENT LIST:

Piezoelectric pressure transducer

DESCRIPTION:

The piezoelectric transducers are the devices which utilizes piezoelectric characteristics of certain
crystalline and ceramic material (such as quartz) to generate an electrical signal.

Piezoelectric Effect:
It is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge in response to applied
mechanical stress as shown in Figure 1.

Basic Principle:

Such transducers depend upon the principle that “when pressure is applied on piezoelectric
crystals (such as quartz), an electrical charge is generated.” There are about 40 crystal-line material that,
when subjected to a “squeeze”, generate an electric charge. Some of the piezoelectric materials are
barium titanate sintered powder, crystal of quartz, tourmaline, and Rochelle salts.

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Construction:
As shown in Figure 2 the piezoelectric pressure transducer consists of diaphragm by which
pressure is transmitted to the piezoelectric crystal Y1. This crystal generates an electrical signal which is
amplified by a charge amplifier. A second piezoelectric crystal Y 2 is included to compensate for any
acceleration of the device during use. This compensation is needed because rapid acceleration of the
transducer creates additional pressure on the piezoelectric crystal. Vibration is a major source of high,
rapidly changing acceleration.
Signals from the compensating crystal, are amplified by a second charge amplifier. A different
amplifier is used which subtracts pressure alone; all effect of acceleration are removed.

Working:

Piezoelectric pressure transducers are used to measure very high pressures that changes
very rapidly. For example, the pressure inside the cylinder of a gasoline engine changes very
rapidly from less than atmospheric pressure to many thousands of pounds per square inch.
Similar pressure changes occur in compressors, rocket motors, etc. It is impossible for ordinary
pressure transducers to measure such great pressure changes over such short time periods. They
do not respond fast enough. But piezoelectric materials to produce an electrical voltage when
they are squeezed suddenly. The voltage disappears when the pressure stop changing.

Piezoelectric pressure transducers may be used to measure pressures over ranges up to

0-50,000 psi. However, piezoelectric transducers cannot measure steady pressure. They respond
only to changing pressures.
CONCLUSION:

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QUESTION BANK

1) Explain piezoelectric pressure transducer.

2) List the Merits and Demerits of piezoelectric pressure transducer.
3) Piezoelectric pressure transducer cannot measure ____________pressure.
4) Piezoelectric pressure transducers measure very high pressures that change rapidly. True or
False.

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PRACTICAL: 8
AIM: Identify electrical contact configurations used in pressure switches.

OBJECTIVES: To understand the working principle of pressure switch.

EQUIPMENT LIST:
Pressure switch

DESCRIPTION:

A pressure switch turns an electric circuit ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’ at a preset pressure. This pressure is called
the set point of the switch. A pressure switch is used in some form of control, e.g. to operate a solenoid
valve at a given pressure, or start up a pump.
The pressure switch is usually a micro switch or a mercury switch. A Burdon tube, a diaphragm or
a bellows can be used to actuate the switch. Figure 1 shows the simplest form of a pressure switch is used
to actuate relay.

The pressure is fed to the inside of a bellows which carries a contact plate B. When pressure
reaches a sufficient (or preset) value, the contact plate touches contact points C1 and C2, thus closing an
electrical circuit to an alarm or motor control gear. The flexibility of the bellow ensures that the plate
makes adequate contact with both points and gives a slight rubbing or wiping action that keeps the
contact area clean.

The pressure switch can be modified so as to make a low pressure contact in addition to a high
pressure contact. It is adjustable. The contact in a pressure switch may be normally closed when the
pressure is below the set point. For example, the contacts in a normally open switch remains open until
the pressure rises above the set point. Then the sensing element makes the contacts snap to the closed
position. The contacts open again when the pressure falls below the set point. The contacts in a normally
closed switch remain closed until the pressure rises above the set point. Then the contacts snap open

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and remain open until the pressure drops below the set point again. Most switches contains two sets of
contacts, one normally open and the other normally closed.

A pressure switch has a “deadband”, i.e. the pressure must fall below the set point before the
switch resets to its normal position. The amount of deadband is the difference in pressure between the
set point and the reset point. The pressure switch is used to operate safety valve which vents steam when
the pressure exceeds the upper limit.

Uses of Pressure Switches:

Following are the uses of pressure switches:

1) One of the most important use of the pressure switch is in limiting pressure, e.g. in steam power
plants. The pressure of the steam entering a turbine must not exceed an upper limit. The
pressure switch is used to operate safety valve which vents steam when the pressure exceeds the
upper limit.
2) An another important use of the pressure switch is in the computer panel. In the computer panel,
blowers are used for cooling purposes. Whenever the blower fails due to any reason, a pressure
switch is actuated which cuts off the power supply of the panel. Thus, the computer panel
components are protected from the high temperature which can occur due to failure of the
blowers.

CONCLUSION:

QUESTION BANK

1) What is pressure switch?

2) The pressure switch is usually a microswitch, not a mercury switch. True or false.
3) Which pressure sensing elements used in pressure switch?
4) Write the application of pressure switch.

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PRACTICAL: 9
AIM: Perform flow measurement using orifice plate.

OBJECTIVES:
1) Familiarization with the Bernoulli's principle for flow measurement.
2) To understand the method of flow measurement using orifice measurement.

EQUIPMENT LIST:

Orifice plate
DESCRIPTION:

An orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in it, which is usually placed in a pipe. When a fluid
(whether liquid or gaseous) passes through the orifice, its pressure builds up slightly upstream of the
orifice but as the fluid is forced to converge to pass through the hole, the velocity increases and the fluid
pressure decreases. A little downstream of the orifice the flow reaches its point of maximum convergence,
the vena contracta (see drawing to the right) where the velocity reaches its maximum and the pressure
reaches its minimum. Beyond that, the flow expands, the velocity falls and the pressure increases. By
measuring the difference in fluid pressure across tapping upstream and downstream of the plate, the flow
rate can be obtained from Bernoulli's equation.

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There are four types of orifice plates which are listed below:

1) Concentric orifice plate

2) Eccentric orifice plate
3) Segmental orifice plate
4) Quadrant edge orifice plate

1) Concentric Orifice Plate:

It is the most widely used. It is usually made of stainless steel and its thickness varies from 3.175
to 12.70 mm (1/8 to 1/2 in.), depending on pipe line size and flow velocity. It has a circular hole (orifice)
in the middle, and is installed in the pipe line with the hole concentric to the pipe. It is also made from
other materials such as nickel, monel, phosphor bronze, etc. to withstand the corrosive effect of the fluid.
The plate thickness at the orifice edge should not exceed any of the following:
D/50
d/8
(D-d)/8

Where d = the pipe internal diameter

D = the orifice diameter or bore

2) Eccentric Orifice Plate:

It is similar to the concentric plate except for the offset hole which is bored tangential to a circle,
concentric with the pipe and of a diameter equal to 98% of that of the pipe. Location of the bore prevents
damming of solid materials or foreign particles and makes it useful for measuring fluids containing solids,
oil containing water and wet stream. The eccentric orifice plate is used where liquid fluid contains a
relatively high percentage of dissolved gases, and is installed with the bore tangential to the upper surface
of the pipe when the flowing material is liquid, and tangential to the lower surface of the pipe when the
fluid is a gas.

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3) Segmental Orifice Plate:

This orifice plate is used for the same type of services as the eccentric orifice plate. It has a hole
which is a segment of a circle, the diameter of which is customarily 98% of the pipe diameter. It is installed
with the dam horizontal and with the curved section of the opening coincident with the lower surface of
the pipe.

4) Quadrant Edge Orifice Plate:

This type of orifice plate is used for flow such as heavy crudes, syrups and slurries, and viscous
flows. It is constructed in such a way that the edge is rounded to form a quarter-circle. The plate has a
concentric opening with a rounded upstream edge rather than the sharp, square edge normally used. It
may be used when the line Reynolds numbers range from 100,000 or above, down to 3,000 to
5,000(depending upon beta ratio) with a coefficient accuracy of approximately 0.5%

Sometimes, orifice plates are provided with an additional small hole for the passage of
condensates and gases, as shown in Figure 2. This hole is located at the bottom when gases are measured,
to allow the condensate to pass in order to prevent its building up at the orifice plate. When the fluid is a
liquid, this hole is located at the top so that the gases can pass and gas pockets cannot built up. The use
of such a drain hole may produce errors in measurement and thus is considered a disadvantage.

CONCLUSION:

QUESTION BANK

1) Orifice plates are usually made of ________________.

(a) Stainless steel
(b) Copper
(c) Plastic materials
(d) None of above
2) In a segmental orifice plate, the diameter of the hole, which is a segment of a circle, is
_____________of the pipe diameter.
3) The eccentric orifice plate is used where liquid fluid contains a relatively high percentage of
Dissolved gases.
4) Write the advantages and disadvantages of orifice plates.

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PRACTICAL: 10
AIM: Perform flow measurement using venturi tube.

OBJECTIVES: To understand the method of flow measurement using Venturi tube.

EQUIPMENT LIST:

Venturi tube

DESCRIPTION:

A venturi tube is where permanent pressure loss is of prime importance, and where maximum
accuracy is desired in the measurement of high viscous fluids. It consists of (i) a straight inlet section of
the same diameter as the pipe in which the high pressure tap is located, (ii) a converging conical inlet
section in which the cross-section of the stream decreases and the velocity head and decrease of pressure
head,(iii) a cylindrical throat which provides for the low pressure tap location of the decreased pressure
in an area where flow velocity is neither increasing nor decreasing, and (iv) a diverging recovery cone in
which velocity decreases and the decreased velocity head is recovered as pressure head, as shown in
Figure 1. The pressure taps are located one-quarter to one-half pipe diameter up-stream of the inlet cone
and at the middle of the throat section.

The venturi tube can be used to handle a fluid which is handled by an orifice plate and
fluids that contains some solids, because these venturi tubes contain no sharp corners and do not project
into the fluid stream. It can be also used to handle slurries and dirty liquids that build up around other
primary elements, if the pressure taps are protected from plugging.

The venturi tubes are usually made of cast iron or steel, and are built in several forms
such as (i) long-form or classic venturi tube. (ii) short-form where the outlet cone is shortened, (iii) an

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eccentric form to minimize the built up of heavy material and a (iv) rectangular from used in air duct-work.
Figure 1,2,3 shows the different types of venturi tubes.

Venturi tubes are available in sizes from 100 mm to 813 mm with a flow coefficient value of 0.984
for all diameter ratios, and beta ratios between 0.3 and 0.75. Its overall accuracy ranges from ±1/4 to ±3%.
Venturi coefficient is less affected by a decreasing Reynolds number.

CONCLUSION:

QUESTION BANK

1) Write the advantages and disadvantages of venturi tube.

2) Which material is used to made venturi tube?
3) State the accuracy range of venturi tube.
4) State the angle of inlet and outlet cone in venturi tube.

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SUB NAME & CODE: PRACTICAL: SEM:

PRACTICAL: 11
AIM: Perform flow measurement using Pitot tube.

OBJECTIVES: To understand the method of flow measurement using Pitot tube.

EQUIPMENT LIST:

Pitot tube

DESCRIPTION:

Principle
Consider Fig. 1 which shows flow around a solid body. When a solid body is held centrally and stationary
in a pipeline with a fluid streaming down, due to the presence of the body, the fluid while approaching
the object starts losing its velocity till directly in front of the body, where the velocity is zero. This point is
known as the stagnation point. As the kinetic head is lost by the fluid, it gains a static head. By measuring
the difference of pressure between that at normal flow line and that at the stagnation point, the velocity
is found out. This principle is used in pitot tube sensors.

Fig: 1 Flow around a solid body

Construction:
The simplest Pitot tube consists of a tube with an impact opening of 3.125 mm to 6.35 mm diameter
pointing towards the approaching fluid. This measures the stagnation pressure. An ordinary upstream tap
can be used for measuring the line pressure.

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Fig. 2 A common industrial type pitot tube

A common industrial type of pitot tube consists of a cylindrical probe inserted into the air stream,
as shown in Fig. 2. Fluid flow velocity at the upstream face of the probe is reduced substantially to zero.
Velocity head is converted to impact pressure, which is sensed through a small hole in the upstream face
of the probe. A corresponding small hole in the side of the probe senses static pressure. A pressure
instrument measures the differential pressure, which is proportional to the square of the stream velocity
in the vicinity of the impact pressure sensing hole.
The total pressure developed at the point where the flow is stagnated is assumed to occur at the
tip of a pitot tube or at a specific point on a bluff body immersed in the stream. The pitot tube causes
practically no pressure loss in the flow stream. It is normally installed through a nipple in the side of the
pipe. It is frequently installed through an isolation valve, so that it can be moved back and forth across the
stream to establish the profile of flow velocity.
Certain characteristics of pitot tube flow measurement have limited its industrial application. For
true measurement of flow, it is essential to establish an average value of flow velocity. To obtain this with
a pitot tube, it is necessary to move the tube back and forth across the stream to establish the velocity at
all points and then to take an average.
Advantages
1. No pressure loss.
2. It is relatively simple.
3. It is readily adapted for flow measurements made in very large pipes or ducts.
Disadvantages
1. Poor accuracy.
2. Not suitable for dirty or sticky fluids and fluids containing solid particles.
3. Sensitive to upstream disturbances.
CONCLUSION:

QUESTION BANK

1) Write the advantages and disadvantages of pitote tube.

2) Write a functions of pitot tube with neat sketch.
3) What is the accuracy range of pitot tube.

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IC DEPT Page 26
SUB NAME & CODE: PRACTICAL: SEM:

PRACTICAL: 12
AIM: Perform flow measurement using Rotameter.

OBJECTIVES: To understand the method of flow measurement using Rotameter.

EQUIPMENT LIST:

Rotameter

DESCRIPTION:

Principle
When fluid or gas flows through a taper tube containing a float, a pressure difference of P1 and
P2 is created between upper and lower side of the float. The float moves upwards by a force obtained by
multiplying the pressure differential by the maximum cross sectional area of the float.

Due to taper tube, as the float moves upwards, the fluid passing area increases as a result of which the
differential pressure decreases. Upward movement of float stops when the dead load is dynamically
balanced by the differential pressure. Tapering of metering tube is so designed that the vertical movement
of the float becomes linearly proportional to the rate of flow and the scale is provided to read the position
of the float, thus giving birth to flow rate indication.

Fig: 1 Rotameter
Based on Bernoulli's theorem, the principle mentioned above can be theoretically expressed as follows.
= gh
Where:
Q = volumetric flow rate, e.g., gallons per minute
k = a constant
A = annular area between the float and the tube wall
g = force of gravity
h = pressure drop (head) across the float

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Construction:
A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass with a 'float', made either of anodized
aluminum or a ceramic, actually a shaped weight, inside that is pushed up by the drag force of the flow
and pulled down by gravity. The drag force for a given fluid and float cross section is a function of flow
speed squared only, see drag equation.

A higher volumetric flow rate through a given area increases flow speed and drag force, so the float will
be pushed upwards. However, as the inside of the rotameter is cone shaped (widens), the area around
the float through which the medium flows increases, the flow speed and drag force decrease until there
is mechanical equilibrium with the float's weight.

Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and ellipsoids being the most common. The float
may be diagonally grooved and partially colored so that it rotates axially as the fluid passes. This shows if
the float is stuck since it will only rotate if it is free. Readings are usually taken at the top of the widest
part of the float; the center for an ellipsoid, or the top for a cylinder. Some manufacturers use a different
standard.

The "float" must not float in the fluid: it has to have a higher density than the fluid, otherwise it will float
to the top even if there is no flow.

The mechanical nature of the measuring principle provides a flow measurement device that does not
require any electrical power. If the tube is made of metal, the float position is transferred to an external
indicator via a magnetic coupling. This capability has considerably expanded the range of applications for
the variable area flowmeter, since the measurement can observed remotely from the process or used for
automatic control.

Advantages
1. A rotameter requires no external power or fuel, it uses only the inherent properties of the fluid,
along with gravity, to measure flow rate.
2. A rotameter is also a relatively simple device that can be mass manufactured out of cheap
materials, allowing for its widespread use.
3. Since the area of the flow passage increases as the float moves up the tube, the scale is
approximately linear.
4. Clear glass is used which is highly resistant to thermal shock and chemical action.
Disadvantages
1. Due to its use of gravity, a rotameter must always be vertically oriented and right way up, with
the fluid flowing upward.
2. Due to its reliance on the ability of the fluid or gas to displace the float, graduations on a given
rotameter will only be accurate for a given substance at a given temperature. The main property
of importance is the density of the fluid; however, viscosity may also be significant. Floats are
ideally designed to be insensitive to viscosity; however, this is seldom verifiable from
manufacturers' specifications. Either separate rotameters for different densities and viscosities
may be used, or multiple scales on the same rotameter can be used.
3. Due to the direct flow indication the resolution is relatively poor compared to other measurement
principles. Readout uncertainty gets worse near the bottom of the scale. Oscillations of the float
and parallax may further increase the uncertainty of the measurement.

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4. Since the float must be read through the flowing medium, some fluids may obscure the reading.
A transducer may be required for electronically measuring the position of the float.
5. Rotameters are not easily adapted for reading by machine; although magnetic floats that drive a
follower outside the tube are available.
6. Rotameters are not generally manufactured in sizes greater than 6 inches/150 mm, but bypass
designs are sometimes used on very large pipes.
CONCLUSION:

QUESTION BANK

1) Write the applications of Rotameter.

2) Write a functions of float.
3) Why rotameter need to install vertically?

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IC DEPT Page 29
SUB NAME & CODE: PRACTICAL: SEM:

PRACTICAL: 13
AIM: Perform flow measurement using Ultrasonic flow meter.

OBJECTIVES: To understand the method of flow measurement using Ultrasonic flow meter.

EQUIPMENT LIST:

Ultrasonic flow meter

DESCRIPTION:

Pressure variations travel through a fluid at the velocity of sound relative to the fluid. If fluid is in
motion with certain velocity, then the absolute velocity of pressure disturbance propagation is the
algebraic sum of the two. The term ‘ultrasonic’ refers to the pressure differences (usually are short bursts
of sine waves) whose frequency is above the range audible to human hearing which is 20 to 20000 Hz.
Principle
The ultrasonic flow meter operates on the principle that the velocity of sound in a fluid in motion
is the resultant of the velocity of sound in the fluid at rest plus or minus the velocity of the fluid itself.
Types of Ultrasonic Flow Meters
(i) Transit time flow meters
(ii) Doppler Flow meter.
Transit Time Flow Meters
As the name implies, these devices measure flow by measuring the time taken for an ultrasonic energy
pulse to traverse a pipe section, both with and against the flow of the liquid within the pipe. Fig. 1 shows
a representative transit time flow meter.

Fig. 1 Transit-time flow meter

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The time (tAB) for the ultrasonic energy to go from transducer A to transducer B is given by the expression:
tAB = L/(C + V. cos θ)
The time (tBA) to go from B to A is given by
tBA = L/(C – V.cos θ)
where C is the speed of sound in the fluid
L is the acoustic path length in the fluid
θ is the angle of the path with respect to the pipe axis.
By combining and simplifying, it can be shown that for V << C :
∆t = tBA – tAB = 2.L.V. cos θ/C2
It can be shown that :
V = L.∆t/2 cos θ tA2 = K ∆t/tA2
where tA is the average transit time between the transducers.
Since the cross sectional area of the pipe section or ‘spool pipe’ is known, the product of area and velocity
will yield the volumetric flow rate.
Frequency Difference-Type
In this type, the reciprocals of transit times are used. This leads to a frequency difference (∆f) which is
proportional to the flow velocity V. The difference in frequencies is related to the velocity as follows:
V = ∆f.L/2. cos θ
The multipulse time shift reflection method uses one or more pulses and times them to determine the
change in range per second to an ensemble of scatters. The change in range per unit time yields the
velocity of scatters.
Flow Meter Construction
The ultrasonic flow meter usually consists of an electronic housing, transducers and a pipe section. A spool
piece with integral transducer is one of the most common types of construction and it is shown in Fig. 2.
The manufacturer mounts the transducers to a flanged pipe section (spool piece). Usually the unit is
calibrated by the manufacturer to meet the user’s specifications. The spool piece thus becomes an integral
part of the hydraulic system so it is not easily retrofitted into an existing system.

Fig. 2 External Transducers

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Clamp-on transducers are capable of being mounted outside an existing pipe as shown in Fig. 2. This type
of system can be calibrated by the manufacturer only if detailed information on pipe diameter, pipe wall
thickness, process fluid, percent of solids concentration, process temperature, variations in process
temperature etc. are also provided by the customers. This type of flow meter is easily retrofitted onto an
existing system, since no pipe section needs be installed.

Doppler Flow Meters

This type of flow meter is based on Doppler principle. The transmitter of a Doppler flow meter projects
an ultrasonic beam at a frequency of about 0.5 MHz into the flowing stream and deflects the reflected
frequency. The difference between transmitted and reflected velocities is called the ‘beat frequency’ and
is related to the velocity of the reflecting surfaces (solid particles and gas bubbles) in the process stream.
Principle of Operation
As shown in Fig.3, an ultrasonic wave is projected at an angle through the pipe wall into the liquid by a
transmitting crystal in a transducer mounted outside the pipe. Part of the energy is reflected by bubbles
or particles in the liquid and is returned through the pipe wall to a receiving crystal. If the reflectors are
travelling at the fluid velocity, the frequency of the reflected wave is shifted according to the Doppler
principle, in proportion to the flow velocity.

Fig. 2 Doppler Flow meter Principle of operation

Combining Snell’s law and Doppler equation, the flow velocity can be determined as follows if V << C.
V = ∆f.Ct/(2.fo.cos θ) = ∆f.K
where ∆f = Difference between transmitted and received frequency.
fo= frequency of transmission
θ = angle of the transmitter and receiver crystal with respect to the pipe axis
Ct = Velocity of sound in the transducer.
As shown in equation, velocity is a linear function of ∆f. Since the inside diameter (ID) of the pipe is known,
volumetric flow rate can be measured as a function of V and square of ID
Volumetric flow rate (Q) ∝ V (ID)2

Advantages
1. Clamp-on transducers eliminate in-line installation, allowing one meter to be used at many
locations.

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2. Exterior installation eliminates pressure losses and prevents leaking that can be associated with
in-line meter installations.
3. Easy installation, no moving parts and no contact between transducer and liquid.
Disadvantages
1. High Cost
2. Pipe wall needs to be fairly clean and free of rust and irregularities.

CONCLUSION:

QUESTION BANK

1) What are ultrasound?

2) Differentiate between audible and Ultrasonic waves.
3) Bats can fly, avoiding obstacles, in spite of being blind. Explain.

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SUB NAME & CODE: PRACTICAL: SEM:

PRACTICAL: 14
AIM: Measure speed using A.C. tachometer.

OBJECTIVES: To understand the method of speed using A.C. tachometer.

EQUIPMENT LIST:

A.C. Tachometer

DESCRIPTION:

Principle
AC Tachometer is working on the principle of electromagnetic Induction. When there is a relative speed
between stator and rotor, voltage is induced which will be proportional to speed of rotor.

Construction:
The AC tachometer generator is an electromechanical device very similar to a two-phase induction motor.
It consists of a primary winding, a secondary winding placed at 90 degrees (mechanically) to the primary,
and a rotor. This arrangement is shown schematically in Figure 1. With the rotor stationary and the
primary winding excited by a sinusoidal voltage, the induced voltage in the secondary is almost zero due
to the relative position of the two windings. However, as the rotor begins to turn, a sinusoidal voltage is
induced in the secondary winding whose magnitude is in proportion to the rotor speed.
Since the output signal is a voltage, the readout instrument used with this tachometer should have a high
input resistance to give near-zero current flow in the secondary winding. Any current flow in the output
winding will cause a voltage drop, which will be subtracted from the true measured voltage, and thus the
speed measurement will be in error.

Fig. 1 AC tachometer schematic

With these type of tachometer, speed in range of 500 to 10,000 rpm can be measured.

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The basic principle of a tachometer is to measure the rotational speed of a shaft. In the case of a vehicle
this would be the crankshaft. A magnetic pickup or Hall Effect sensor can detect the presence or absence
of a magnet and count revolutions. It is not much more complicated than that. In one form, a tachometer
sending unit will generate a variable voltage by either pulse width modulation (PWM) or variable AC
depending upon RPM. The PWM method uses a fixed pulse width with variable frequency. The resulting
variable voltage will be indicated on a voltmeter calibrated in RPM. In another form, a tachometer sending
unit will generate a variable frequency based upon RPM. The indicator will respond to the varying
frequency to indicate RPM.

Advantages
1. Speed direction is directly available through voltage polarity.
2. Maintenance free due to absence of commuter and brushes
Disadvantages
1. Output is nonlinear.
2. Large number of poles are required
3. Required high input impendence display devices
Practical Application of Tachometer
1) It is used in measure the speed of marine diesel engines on board ships and to know
direction in which the ship is rotating.
2) The key application areas of Tachometer include its usage in Automobiles, airplanes,
trucks, trains , light rail vehicles and tractors
3) It is used in many Laser instruments
4) Practical applications of this device include its uses in the medical field where a haema
tachometer is placed in an artery or vein to estimate rate of blood flow .The rate of flow
is determined from the speed at which the turbine spins and readings that we see are
used to diagnose various circulatory problems like clogged arteries.
CONCLUSION:

QUESTION BANK

1) Write the advantages and disadvantages of AC Tachometer.

2) Write a functions of Resistance in tachometer.
3) What is the accuracy range of AC Tachometer.

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IC DEPT Page 35
SUB NAME & CODE: PRACTICAL: SEM:

PRACTICAL: 15
AIM: Perform speed measurement using DC Tachometer.

OBJECTIVES: To understand the method of speed measurement using DC Tachometer.

EQUIPMENT LIST:

DC Tachometer

DESCRIPTION:

Principle
DC Tachometer is working on the principle of electromagnetic Induction. When there is a relative speed
between stator and rotor, voltage is induced which will be proportional to speed of rotor.

Construction:
In the DC tachometer generator, the magnetic flux is provided by a permanent magnet, and the output
winding is located on the rotor. At zero speed there is no relative motion between magnetic field and
winding, and the output voltage is zero.
As rotor speed increases, so does the relative speed between magnetic field and winding, and hence the
output voltage. The voltage induced in the winding is sinusoidal; a commutator and brushes on the rotor
convert the AC voltage in the winding to a DC output in the same manner as in the DC generator. The DC
tachometer is shown schematically in Figure 1. With these type of tachometer, speed in range of 10 to
5,000 rpm can be measured.

Fig. 1 DC tachometer schematic.

Advantages
1. The main advantage of this meter is the direction of rotation is indicated by the polarity of the
output voltage.
Disadvantages
1. The Commutator and Brushes require periodic maintenance.
2. The output voltage is nonlinear.

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CONCLUSION:

QUESTION BANK

1) Explain basic principle of tachometer.

2) How many types of tachometer and explain working of it with neat sketch
3) Give the range of ac and dc tachometer.

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IC DEPT Page 37
SUB NAME & CODE: PRACTICAL: SEM:

PRACTICAL: 16
AIM: Perform humidity measurement using Wet & Dry bulb type hygrometer.

OBJECTIVES: To understand the method of humidity measurement using Wet & Dry bulb type
hygrometer.

EQUIPMENT LIST:

Wet & Dry bulb type hygrometer

DESCRIPTION:

Principle
When water or ice covers the bulb of a thermometer (wet-bulb), latent heat is removed from the surface
of the bulb as the water evaporates, and the wet-bulb temperature becomes lower than the air (dry-bulb)
temperature. At a lower humidity, water evaporates more actively, so that the wet-bulb temperature
lowers sharply. The aspirated psychrometer measures humidity by measuring the difference between the
dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature.

Structure and composition:

The psychrometer consists of two thermometers of the same specifications, which are suspended side by
side in the air. One of them measures the actual air (dry-bulb) temperature while the other, whose bulb
is covered with a wet-bulb temperature.

Construction:
Psychrometers are classified into the non-aspirated type psychrometer (portable aspirated
psychrometers and sling psychrometers) and the aspirated type psychrometers (Assuming type aspirated
psychrometer and JAM type aspirated psychrometers). Aspirated psychrometers are designed to keep the
constant flow of air over around the bulbs.
The structure and composition of the Assuman type aspirated psychrometer, which is commonly
used in Japan, and described below. Figure 1 shows the structure of the Assuman type aspirated
psychrometer. The psychrometer consists of two enclosed scale type mercury thermometers, which can
read temperature in increments of 0.1℃. One of them is called a dry-bulb thermometer, which measures
actual air temperature and the other is called a wet-bulb thermometer, which ismeasures the
temperature of wet-bulb which covered with a wet sleeve. The wet sleeve is a white thin cotton cloth
soaked with water.
The external and internal cylinders of a metal aspiration tube protect the bulbs from precipitation
and radiation of direct sunlight. As shown in figure 1, air flow with a velocity of 2.5 m/s enters from the
bottom with an electromotive fan or a spring fan. The time constant of the psychrometer is about 40
seconds. A squirt is used to feed water to the wet sleeve of the wet-bulb or to suck excess water from it.

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CONCLUSION:

QUESTION BANK

1) Write the advantages and disadvantages of Wet & Dry bulb type hygrometer.
2) Write a functions of bulb in Wet & Dry bulb type hygrometer.

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PRACTICAL: 17

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PRACTICAL: 18

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