Chapter III

CHEMICAL PROCESSING

After the exposure of the film to light in the picture taking or the photographic paper during printing, the
next step would generally be chemical processing.

In black and white processing, the steps are development, stop bath, and fixation.
In color processing, the steps are color development, stop-fix, and stabilizer.

DEVELOPMENT
 The process by which an invisible latent image in an emulsion is made visible. In black and white
emulsion, the image is composed of grains of black metallic silver. In color emulsion, the
developed silver is replaced with cyan, yellow, and magenta dye.
 Refers to the process of reduction. Exposed silver halides are reduced into metallic silver
 There is separate developer for film (D-76) and another for paper (Dektol).
 The factor that affects developing: developing time, agitation temperature, concentration of
chemical and exposure.

Component of Developer:

A typical component of a black – and – white developer are:

 Developing Agent- It reduced the exposed silver halide into metallic silver. Amidol,
hydroquinone and metol are the common developing agents.
 Preservative- it protects the developing agents against aerial oxidation. Usually sodium sulfite is
used to increase the rate of development and density.
 Accelerator- Alkaline solutions like sodium carbonate and borax powder are mixed to the
developing solution to accelerate the process or reduction of the silver salts to metallic silver.
 Restrainer- to prevent ionization and fogging o the latent image, potassium bromide is added to
the developing solution. (Solvent/water)
 Various chemicals can serve this function. Chemicals chosen are determined whether it is slow or
fast acting, produce high, normal, or low contrast, achieves maximum emulsion speed, creates
fine grain or acts in a number of ways.

D-76 Film developer formula:

1. Water 52C or 125F - 750 ml
2. Elon - 2 grams
3. Hydroquinone - 5 grams
4. Sodium sulfite - 100 grams
5. Borax (granules) - 2 grams
6. Water to make - 1 liter

DEKTOL – Paper Developer:

1. Water 52C or 125F - 500 ml
2. Elon - 311 grams
3. Hydroquinone - 12 grams
4. Sodium sulfite - 4.5 grams
5. Sodium carbonate - 67.5 grams
6. Potassium bromide - 1 gram
 7. Water to make - 1 liter

Factors that Affect Developing Time:

1. Characteristics of negative material
2. Strength and composition of developer
3. Temperature of the developing solution

Stop Bath
 Is an Intermediate bath between the developer and the fixer?
 It is usually a combination of water blue acetic add or just plain water.
 Primarily its function is to prevent the contamination of the chemical solution, particularly the
contamination of the developer and fixer from each other.
 Stop-bath can be plain water only with 28% glacial acetic acid

Fixation
 Refers to the process of removing unexposed halide remaining in the emulsion after the first stage
of development of the latent image.
 The usual composition of an acid fixing solution are solvent silver halide known as Hypo; anti-
staining agent like acetic acid, a preservative like sodium sulfate, and a hardening agent like
potassium alum.
 A fixer makes the developed image permanent when it is followed by a thorough washing. In this
processing stage, the unexposed underdeveloped silver halides crystals are dissolved and
removed from the emulsion of the photographic material

Component of Fixer:
 Solvent Silver Halide – It is a “Sodium Thiosulfite popularly as hypo solution”. The function is to
remove the unexposed silver halide.
 Anti- Staining Agent- it is the acetic acid which neutralizes the alkali in the developer carried over
that will prevent the weakening of the fixing solution and the staining of the image produced.
 Preservative- Sodium sulfite act as the preservative of the fixing solution that will prevent
precipitation of sulfur and also prevent the oxidation of the developing solution carried over in
the fixing bath.
 Hardening Agent- It is the potassium alum that hardens the gelatin of the sensitized materials
which was softens in the developing solution.

Fixing Bath formula:

The chemical component of a fixing bath are:
1. Water
2. Dissolving agent
3. Preservative
4. Neutralizers
5. Hardener

A typical fixer formula:

1. Water 50C or 125F - 600 ml
2. Hypo (sodium thiosulfate) - 240 g
3. Sodium sulfite (anhydrous) - 15 g
4. Acetic acid (28%) - 480 ml
5. Boric acid (crystals) - 7.5 g
6. Potassium alum (fine granular) - 15 g
 7. Water to make - 1 liter

The fixing bath is recommended generally for both films and photographic papers.
Film Processing

 The most crucial part in the development.

 Film processing can be carried out in trays, tanks, or mechanized equipment.
 Panchromatic materials must be handled in total darkness.
 Other materials like blue films, orthochromatic films and printing papers are handled under a
safelight

Equipment for film processing:

1. Tank or tray
2. Developing reel
3. Opener for film cartridge (pliers). Some .35 mm. films have a reusable cartridge that can be
snapped open by hand but others can only be opened with a pair of pliers.
4. Scissors to cut the tongue of the film
5. Thermometer
6. Timer
7. Funnel
8. Photographic sponge
9. Film clips for drying
10. Glass or plastic bottles (gallon size( for storing mixed solutions

Small format films like the .35 mm. is best developed in a cylindrical daylight developing tank that
accommodate a spiral reel. The tank and the reel can be a stainless steel or made of hard plastic. These
tanks usually have a light – tight lid with provision for pouring solutions in and out while covered so that
only one tank is required for the entire process
Metal reels have a center clip or hook to hold one end by the spiral. Metal reels comes in a fixed size.
The plastic reel is loaded by simply pushing the film into the spiral from the outer end. It has a flange
that moves with back and forth rachet action after the film had been engaged on the outside guide slots,
the rachet movement feeds it smoothly into the grooves. Plastic reel can be adjusted to accommodate
different film size

Film Processing Procedure:

1. Tank method of film development

a. Mix the developer, stop-bath, and the fixer according to instructional manuals. Then bring it
to temperature which is 20 – 21 C or 68 – 70 F.
b. In a dry area, lay out the film, opener, scissors, reel and the tank so they can be readily
located in the dark.
c. In complete darkness, open the film cartridge by simply prying off the cap opposite the end,
where the long spool core protrudes. Extends the film then remove it from the tips in the
spool core. Then reel it.

Reeling procedure:
 To load a metal spiral reel, hold the film with the emulsion side in or down loosely in one hand
while the other hand holds the reel.
 Engage the film’s end at the center clip or hook of the reel.
  Slightly squeeze the film width by pressing between the thumb and forefinger so it narrows just
enough to fit into the reel.
 Turn the reel with other hand to pull the film onto the reel.
 Do not apply excessive pressure with the hand holding and squeezing the film.
 Let the film pass freely, it will straighten out full width in the spiral space of the reel.
d. After the reeling of the film is done, placed it inside the daylight developing tank then cover
it. White light can now be opened. Remove the lid cover of the tank and pour the film
developer slowly until the tank is full. Invert the tank then agitate it for a seconds. Timer
should start now. Intermittent agitation should be made during the developing time. After 5-6
minutes, pour out or drain the developer.
e. Pour in the stop-bath, agitate the tank some more and after 15-20 seconds, drain out stop-
bath. Next is to pour in the fixing bath. Agitation should also be done every so often and after
15-20 minutes, drain the fixer from the tank.

Note: Used developer, stop-bath and fixer can be used again and again but instead of pouring
them back in the bottles of fresh or unused solutions, pour them in a separate container so it will not
contaminate the fresh or unused solutions.

f. You now wash the negative for several changes or preferably in running water for another 15-
20 minutes.
g. Remove the negative from the developing reel. Get the sponge and immerse it in the water
then squeeze it to remove excess water. Wipe the negative with the sponge slowly to remove
the water adhering on the negative. This must be done on both sides of the negative. Water
that adheres on the surface of the negative can cause watermarks if allowed to dry without
wiping.
h. Hang the negative to dry at a clean, dust free place or better in a negative drier.

2. Tray method of film development

a. With this method of film development, the developer is placed on the tray.
b. In total darkness, remove the film from the cartridge then hold one end of the film and
immerse the film in the developer in the tray making sure that the film is thoroughly dipped
until the whole length of the film is evenly wet.
c. Timer will start now.
d. With see – saw or pulling up or down motion, move the film from one end to the other then
back, continuously, until the developing time of 4-5 minutes is done.
e. Then transfer it to the stop-bath for 10-15 seconds with the same motion.
f. Thereafter, place the film in the fixer and execute same motion for about five minutes then
you can now open the white light.
g. Continue the fixing until the required time is finished.
h. Next will be the washing and drying of the negative.

Note: This developing procedure is actually not recommended because the film has a long contact
with air during the procedure which can caused aerial fog. Besides it is more tedious and tiring especially
with a 36 exposure film
Photographic Printing:
1. Contact Printing
2. Projection Printing or Enlarging

1. Contact Printing
  The procedure of exposing photographic print materials while it is pressed in contact with the
negative being reproduced.
 Contact prints are generally made for proofs of 35 mm negatives or copies of the large format
negatives like 5”x7” or 8”x10”.
 It is also used to make positive copies of negatives.
 Contact prints can be made with either black – and – white or color materials.

Contact prints may be made with:

a. Glass and pad
b. Pressure printing frame
c. Contact printer

 Glass and pad – a sheet of clear glass about 2 inches bigger that the print size in all sides to give
a border for handling a for its application of pressure. The pad should be of the same size as the
glass.
 Pressure printing frame – this is like a picture frame with a removable hinge back leaf spring on
the back. Lock it into place and it exert pressure against the glass in the frame.
 Contact Printer- For a large volume work and a more controlled printing, a contact printer is
most effective and convenient. This is essentially a glass-top box with an exposing light and a
safelight (for proper arrangement of the negatives and the paper) inside and a hinge pressure
cover on the glass. Switches of the format control the lights.

Projection Procedure:
 Clean the glass from dust, dirt and stains.
 Place the negative with the base side against the glass and the emulsion of the photographic
paper.
 If a film rather than a photographic paper is being exposed, it must be backed with a black paper
so reflected lights will not add unwanted exposure, arrange the negatives to be printed on the
photographic paper so every part of it is accommodated with extra space on all sides.

2. Projection Printing or Enlarging

 This is a type of printing where the image in a negative is optically projected or enlarged onto a
print material for exposure to produce a picture image.

Printing Making Process

 It is the final stage in making photographs.
 The main equipment used is the ENLARGER – a device which the image on the negative is
transferred to the photographic paper by the action of light.

Two General Types of Enlargers:

1. Diffusion type
2. Condenser type

Diffusion enlarger
 Has a diffusion screen (usually ground or optical glass) between the light source and the negative.
 Light from the lamp, as well as the light reflected from the reflector of the lamp housing, falls on
the diffuser that scatters the light.
 After the light passes through the diffuser, it travels in many directions when it falls upon the
negative.
Condenser enlarger
 Has a set of condensing lenses between the light source and the negative.
 The condensing lenses concentrate or focus the light from a bulb and direct the light rays straight
through the negative to the lens

Basic Parts of Enlarger:

1. Baseboard and its vertical column
2. Lamp house
3. Condenser or diffuser
4. Bellows
5. Lens
6. Focusing knob
7. Elevating control knob
8. Red filter
9. Electrical cord and switch

Essential accessory of an enlarger:

1. Negative Carrier
2. Easel of paper holder
3. Timer for consistent and repeatable exposure

Common light sources of enlarger:

1. Tungsten lamp
2. Halogen lamp
3. Mercury vapor lamp
4. Fluorescent lamp (Cold light)

EXERCISES FOR TOPIC 9

Identification: Identify the correct word for each of the following questions.
Write your answer on your answer sheet.

Elaborate the chemical processing of black and white film. (10points)

TOPIC 10 Final Period

CHAPTER I

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Sometimes referred to as FORENSIC IMAGING or CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY, is the

art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime scene or an accident scene using
photography for the benefit of a court or to aid in an investigation.
2. It is part of the process of evidence collecting. It provides investigators with photos of victims,
places and items involved in the crime.
3. Pictures of accidents show broken machinery, or a car crash, and so on. Photography of this kind
involves choosing correct lighting, accurate angling of lenses, and a collection of different
viewpoints. Scales, like items of length measurement or objects of known size, are often used in
the picture so that dimensions of items are recorded on the image.

Photomicrography:
 1. It is photography seen thru the microscope.
2. It is camera combined with a microscope for high magnification.
3. Is the art or process of photographing minute objects and magnified by means of the microscope
and enlarge it from 10 times up.

Photomacrography
 The photography of small objects by the short focus lens in along bellows camera.
 It is for low magnification.
 Is the art or process of photographing an object at greater than 1:1 ratio up to nine times
magnification?

Infra-red Photography - is the art or process of photographing or recording unseen objects by means of
infra-red light.

MUG SHOTS PHOTOGRAPHY - is the process of taking photograph of the suspect in full length, half
body, right and left side views, and two quarter views.

Ultra Violet Photography - is the art or process of photographing unseen objects with the use of ultra
violet rays and filters.
Crime-Scene Photography

The primary purpose of crime-scene photography is to provide information that will assist
the successful investigation and subsequent prosecution of a criminal case. Photography is used as a
permanent visual record of the exact and original location and condition of the different aspects of the
scene and vital evidences of proof. Hence, the indispensable photographing of the crime scene should be
done completely and accurately before objects of evidence are removed, altered, or lost. In the initial
stages of an investigation, there are certain aspects that are not readily evident, but later they may affect
vital issues of the case.

Generally, crime scene photography serves in the following areas:

 To provide the investigator and the prosecutor with an accurate pictorial presentation of the
appearance and position of objects at the scene.
 To aid in the questioning of suspects and witnesses when their sworn statements are being
taken.
 To present to the court an accurate picture of the scene thereby enabling them to understand
the evidences better and evaluate intelligently the testimony concerning the distances of the
defendants and witnesses.

This will involve the coverage of the crime scene from different major vantage positions:

 the long range or general view

 the medium range or medium view
 the close-up
 the extreme close-up

The photographic range or views can be categorized as:

 Focusing on the location of the crime.
 concentrating on the features of the offense
 centering on the result of the crime
  featuring the physical evidence existing at the scene
 Focusing on the follow-up activity not directly occurring at the immediate scene.

Indoor
1. Views of the exterior of the building/vehicle, with relation to other buildings/ vehicles, roads,
streets, etc.
2. Point of entry - outside and inside.
3. Point of exit - outside and inside.
4. Condition of the crime scene.
5. Area from which valuable articles were found/removed.
6. Articles left at the scene.
7. Trace evidence, such as hairs, fibers, and cigarette butts.
8. Tool marks and impressions of shoes or tire tracks.
9. Fingerprints and footprints, as well as articles on which these prints may be found.

Points to remember

10. Always take preliminary photographs before the scene is altered in any way.
11. Take a complete set of photographs (Overall, Mid-Range and Close-up). Shoot from different
angles and distances. Film is cheaper than lost cases.
12. Use fresh film and keep away from heat.
13. Keep your photographs sharp. Focus carefully. Be sure your lens is clean.
14. Avoid back lighting. It creates silhouettes and may cause flare. If you must shoot toward a light,
shade the lens as best as you can.
15. Use side lighting to bring out texture, accident damage.

CHAPTER II

APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN POLICE WORK

INTRODUCTION: GENERAL APPLICATIONS

After the theory, comes actual practice. Every difficult endeavor requires the integration of two
important areas so success can be obtained - theory and practice. There is almost always a tendency to
disregard the theoretical aspects associated with a special problem so that the practical considerations can
be studied. Without a sound framework relating to the significant theory background of any problem, it is
virtually impossible to ensure that the finish product is the best possible one which can be obtained under
a given set of circumstances. (Moreau 1994)

Photography has and still continues to serve a wide variety of functions in our criminal justice
system. The extent to which photography can be applied in the different pillars of our criminal justice
system will depend on the size of the organization, its financial capabilities, the enthusiasm, imagination,
and skill of its personnel.
Listed are some applications which are subject of our brief discussion and for practical exercises
during laboratory work to build the basic foundation of the skill of a beginner and of one who is already
in the practice of forensic photography.

Identification purposes
 Prisoners, persons subject of investigation
  Unidentified cadavers (victims of crimes, traffic accidents, airline crash, collapse of big
buildings, shipwrecks, stampede, explosions, natural calamities like earthquakes, landslides,
cave-in of mines, tidal waves, massive flood, etc.
 Missing persons (for publications and alert warnings)
 Lost or stolen properties (work of art like paintings, sculpture, icons, antiques, expensive
jewelries, rare coins or books, etc.)
 Civilian (police clearances for employment, travel abroad, other purposes).

Recording and preserving of evidences

 Crime scenes (homicide or murder, theft or robbery, arson, other crimes listed in the Revised
Penal Code as well as other special laws (organized or syndicated, crimes cyber-space or
computer crimes).
 Traffic accidents.
 Objects of evidences (guns, bullet or shell, knife, clothing, shoes, other personal belongings,
etc.).
 Evidential traces (fingerprints, shoe or tire prints, bloodstains and other body fluids,
toolmarks, bomb or explosive residues, etc.

Discovering and proving of evidences not readily seen by the naked eye.
 Contrast control by lighting, use of filters, use of different films and papers
 Magnification or enlargements of tiny objects by the application of photomicrography or
photomicrography
 Use of invisible radiation like x-rays, ultraviolet rays, and infrared rays

Recording action of offenders

 surveillance
 entrapment
 extra-judicial confession
 re-enactment of a crime

For court exhibits

 individual photographs
 slide projections
 comparison charts
 motion picture or video coverage/presentation

For crime prevention

Visual presentation for lectures on traffic education, modus operandi of "con game artist,"
snatchers or hold-uppers, civil defense, informational services shared with other local or foreign police
organization, business establishments (banks, hotels) and industrial complex security.

Public Information

Photographs for press releases, posters of wanted criminals, crime alert, etc. Every police
administrator must endeavor to build a good public image of his organization and its personnel. Media
coverage on sensational or high profile crime is alright but he must not lose sight on the often ignored
day-to-day activities on the enforcement of laws. On humanitarian services rendered like search and
rescue missions during disasters and calamities, example are pictures of a traffic policeman giving aid to
an elderly or a child crossing a busy intersection or a beat policeman doing his rounds on foul weather or
in an empty and desolate street at night, can portray an image that indeed the police is a public servant, a
protector, and a friend.

Police training

Prepared training films or video presentations of personnel indoctrination, police tactics,

investigative techniques, traffic control, civil disturbances (demonstrations) control, riots or prison
disorders, documentaries for pre- and post-briefings on police operations, etc.

BRANCHES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Amateur Photography - this is the beginner's photography. The camera used here are chiefly of folding
type using a cartridge film and are of small size. The camera is designed primarily in the hand and is
occasionally used upon tripods. In addition to small portable cameras many amateur photographers used
reflex cameras with focal plane shutter. This branch of photography contributed much to the development
of science of photography, they were the first to employ the color sensitive plates to use lenses of special
types, such as telephoto and wide angle lenses to study printing process and to develop artistic of
photography.

Professional Photography - is divided into two

 Portraiture photography - a branch of photography used in home, studio, or elsewhere.
Artificial light was introduced here to make the photography independent of the weather.
 Commercial photography - a branch of photography used to take photographs of building,
machineries, and articles of merchandise. The branch of photography has developed greatly that
is has become the work of a specialize group of commercial photography.

Applied and Scientific Photography - this is used in science and industry to make a record which can be
studied and measured. It can be used in copying documents, etc. because photographic records have the
advantage of accuracy and speed.
 Photostat camera - a roll of sensitized paper is employed of which the document is recorded. The
result is in the form of a negative. If positive is required the negative is re-photographed in the
same camera.
 Factograph camera - camera used in reading telephone meter
 Recordak camera - this camera is intended to photograph a strip of motion picture all chicks
passing through the bank. It provides a permanent record which greatly diminishes the risk of
fraud.

Astronomical Photograph - a branch of photograph with great importance in the study of astronomy.
The visual observation in the study of astronomy has been replaced almost entirely by photography. A
photographic plate is used in the focal plane of the telescope, and the observers work is reduced to
directing the telescope towards the object to be photograph. A notable advance made possibly the
photography is accurate determinations parallel axes of the nearer star.
Spectroscopy - a branch of photography used in determining chemical element of a matter. These
become possible after the discovery of isocyanine and carbocyanine dye.
Photomicrography - the application of photography to microscope. This is photography on minute
objects invisible or almost invisible to the naked eye using special cameras aided by microscopic devices.
Photographs of bacteria or viruses are through the microscope.

Photo topography - an application of photography to surveying especially in mountainous countries

Aerial photography - this is utilized for military purposes as well as surveying. It is an aid to military,
both for detection of enemy operations and for preparations for maps.
Radiography - a branch of photography discovered by Roentgen in 1895. It is sometimes called x-ray
photography. It is applicable in medical science as well as in crime detection.
Cinematography - this is sometimes called motion picture photography. In police it is used to
photograph the re-enactment of the crime at the crime scene.

ACTIVITIES/EXERCISES FOR TOPIC 10

I. Identification: Identify the correct word for each of the following questions. Write your answer on your
answer sheet.
1. A branch of photography used in determining chemical element of a matter.
2. The photography of small objects by the short focus lens in along bellows camera.
3. The process of taking photograph of the suspect in full length, half body, right and left side views,
and two quarter views.
4. Branch of photography used in home, studio, or elsewhere.
5. Was introduced here to make the photography independent of the weather.
6. Camera used in reading telephone meter
7. Branch of photography with great importance in the study of astronomy.
8. A roll of sensitized paper is employed of which the document is recorded.
9. This is used in science and industry to make a record which can be studied and measured.
10. The art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime scene or an accident scene using
photography for the benefit of a court or to aid in an investigation.
II. What are the important facts to remember while performing crime scene photography?

References
 Bulan, M.E.C., Magadia, M.E.P. (2017). Police photography. Manila, Philippines: Wiseman’s
Books Trading, Inc.
 Guevara, R.M., Vias, W.C. (2015). Criminalistics: Criminal justice education comprehensive
digest. Manila, Philippines: Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.
 Villarba, W.H. (2011). Laboratory manual in criminalistics 2: (police photography). Manila,
Philippines: Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.
 Villarba, W.H. (2008). Forensic photography for criminology students and practitioners. Manila,
Philippines: Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.