1.

Structure and function of chloroplast

- Structure:
+ The 4 major structural regions or compartments:
(1) a pair of outer limiting membranes, collectively known as the envelope
(2) an unstructured background matrix or stroma
(3) a highly structured internal system of membranes called thylakoids
(4) the intra-thylakoid space or lumen
+ The envelope encloses the stroma, a predominantly protein solution.
+ The stroma contains all of the enzymes responsible for photosynthetic carbon reduction, including
ribulose-1,5-biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase referred rubisco
+ Cross-section of membranes the appearance of a flattened sack or thylakoid having grana on the
surface composed grana thylakoids
+ Embedded within the stroma is a complex system of membranes often referred to as lamellae
- Function:
+ Chloroplasts produce energy through photosynthesis and oxygen-release processes, which sustain
plant growth and crop yield. As such, chloroplasts are responsible for the biosynthesis of active
compounds such as amino acids, phytohormones, nucleotides, vitamins, lipids, and secondary
metabolites
+ In chloroplasts the protons are pumped across the thylakoid membrane, from the stroma into the
lumen. The difference in proton concentration (ΔpH) across the membrane may be 3-4 orders of
magnitude
+ The direction of the proton motive force also favors the return of protons to the stroma, but the low
proton conductance of the thylakoid membrane will not allow the protons to simply diffuse back.
+ In fact, the return of protons to the stroma is restricted to highly specific, protein-lined channels that
extend through the membrane and that are a part of the ATP synthesizing enzyme, ATP-synthase
+ When the electron-transport complexes and the ATP-synthesizing complex are both operating, a
proton circuit is established in chloroplasts as well as mitochondria
2. Structure and function of mitochondrial
- Structure:
+ Mitochondria, energy transducing organelle, are organized into several ultrastructural compartments
with distinct metabolic functions: an outer membrane, an inner membrane, the intermembrane space,
and the matrix. + The inner membrane is extensively folded called cristae.
+ The common pattern in plant mitochondria is less regular, forming a system of tubes and sacs
- Function:
+ In mitochondria, the respiratory electron-transport complex pumps protons from the matrix to the
intermembrane space (IMS) to establish a proton gradient. The potential energy of this proton gradient
is consumed by the mitochondrial ATP synthase to synthesize ATP. The chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP
by mitochondria is called oxidative phosphorylation.

(B) Physiology and characteristics of light

3. Light is electromagnetic energy which exist in 2 forms
Light is a form of radiant energy, a narrow band of energy within the continuous electromagnetic
spectrum of radiation emitted by the sun. Light is defined by the range of wavelengths – between 400
and approximately 700nm – capable of stimulating the receptors located in the retina of the human eye
4. Light can be characterized as a wave phenomenon
The propagation of light through space is characterized by regular and repetitive changes, or waves, in
its electrical and magnetic properties. The wave properties of light may be characterized by either
wavelength or frequency. Wavelength of primary interest to photobiologists fall into 3 distinct range:
ultraviolet, visible and infrared
5. Light can be characterized as a stream of discrete particles
When light is emitted from a source or interacts with matter, it behaves as through its energy is divided
into discrete units or particles called photons. The energy carried out by a photon is called a quantum
6. Light energy can interact with matter
For light to be used by plants, it must first be absorbed. The Gotthaus-Draper principle tells us that only
light that is absorbed can be active in a photochemical process. Any photobiological phenomenon
requires the participation of a molecule that absorbs light; such, a molecule may be defined as a
pigment.

(C) Photosynthesis Carbon Reduction (PCR)-Calvin cycle

7. The PCR cycle reduces CO2 to produce 3-carbon sugar
(1) Carboxylation -> fixes CO2 + ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) -> 2 PGA
(2) Reduction -> +(ATP, NADP) -> convert PGA (3-phosphoglycerate) -> Triose-P
(3) Regeneration -> +(ATP) -> convert triose-P -> RuBP
8. The carboxylation reaction fixes the CO2
CO2 + RuBP -> forming 6-carbon -> hydrolyzed -> 2x 3-PGA
*Enzyme= ribulose-1,5-biphosphate carboxylase oxygenase or Rubisco
9. ATP and NADP are consumed in the PCR cycle
Reduction of 3-PGA -> Triose-P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate G3P)
(1) 3-PGA -> phosphorylated -> 1,3-biphosphoglycerate
(2) -> reduction -> glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)
Regeneration of RuBP
(1) F6P + triose-P -> 5-carbon sugar + 4-carbon sugar
(2) Triose-P + 4-carbon sugar -> 7-carbon sugar
(3) 7-carbon sugar + triose-P -> 2x (5-carbon sugar) -> isomerized -> ribulose-5-phosphate (Ru5P)
(4) Ru5P -> phosphorylated -> ribulose-1,5-biphosphate (RuBP)
10. Energetics of the PCR cycle
Reduction of 3x CO2  need  6x NADPH + 9x ATP