Ventilation in Industrial Environments

Industrial environments necessitate ventilation to mitigate exposure to excessive heat and

contaminants present in the workspace. Ventilation primarily serves to manage excess heat,
odors, and hazardous particulate and chemical contaminants, which could compromise workers’
health and safety or even pose a combustible risk when reaching certain concentrations. Local
exhaust systems are instrumental in capturing heated air and contaminants at their source, often
requiring lower airflows than general ventilation. General ventilation can be achieved through
mechanical or natural means, or a combination of both, ensuring a comfortable and safe
environment, especially in extreme climatic conditions. Recirculating air, when appropriate, can
contribute significantly to energy efficiency in industrial ventilation.
It's crucial for positive ventilation into industrial spaces to originate from a clean source free
from contaminants under normal and abnormal conditions. Proper design considerations, such as
sealed intake stacks or ductwork, are necessary to prevent contamination. Additionally, general
exhaust systems are essential for removing air contaminated by gases, vapors, or particulates not
captured by local exhausts.
When designing ventilation systems for industrial settings, careful analysis of supply and exhaust
air requirements is vital to ensure optimal performance. For scenarios involving exposure to
hazardous substances, collaboration among ventilation engineers, industrial hygienists, and
process engineers is imperative. Proper consideration must also be given to electrical
components to mitigate risks associated with ignitable substances.
Adherence to occupational exposure limits is crucial when specifying acceptable chemical
contaminant and heat exposure levels. These limits serve as guidelines for safe working
conditions, although it's prudent to design for control even below the regulated limits due to
individual variability in susceptibility.
Ventilation design principles encompass various methods, including general comfort and dilution
ventilation. Effective air diffusion and adequate supply of conditioned air are essential for
maintaining acceptable working conditions and minimizing installation and operating costs. The
quantity and distribution of supplied air play significant roles in achieving optimal ventilation.
Different air supply methods, such as mixing, displacement, and localized ventilation, offer
diverse approaches to address ventilation needs in industrial spaces. Each method has its
advantages and is selected based on factors like contaminant release characteristics and spatial
requirements. Close attention to design considerations ensures the effectiveness of ventilation
systems in industrial environments.
Overall, the design and implementation of ventilation systems in industrial settings require a
comprehensive understanding of the operational conditions and collaboration among various
stakeholders to ensure the safety and well-being of workers.

Localized
Ventilation Systems

Local Area and Spot Cooling

In workplaces where maintaining a comfortable environment throughout the entire space is
impractical due to hot conditions and limited work areas, localized solutions such as
environmentally controlled cabins, individual cooling, and spot cooling and extraction can
significantly improve working conditions in occupied areas. For example, environmentally
controlled cabins like operating cabs, control rooms, and enclosures can offer thermal comfort
and improved air quality when pressurized with clean air. Properly designing and maintaining
such worker-protective enclosures can yield significant economic benefits.
Spot cooling, a popular method for improving thermal comfort, can be achieved through
radiation or convection, or a combination of both. Spot-cooling equipment fixed at the
workstation or worn by the worker can effectively alleviate discomfort. Additionally, local
exhaust ventilation, or spot extraction, can remove excess heat from specific processes or sources
of high temperature, often providing energy savings over spot cooling when implemented as the
primary method.
Locker Room, Toilet, and Shower Space Ventilation
Ventilation of locker rooms, toilets, and shower spaces in industrial facilities is crucial for odor
removal and humidity control. Adequate ventilation, including hygienic facilities and appropriate
ventilation, is essential to prevent workroom contamination via ingestion and inhalation routes.
Compliance with state, provincial, and local regulations should be ensured during the design
phase to meet ventilation requirements.
Supply air can be introduced through doors or wall grilles, with filtration or dedicated clean air
sources necessary in some cases to maintain acceptable air quality. Positive pressurization of
locker rooms, lunchrooms, and break rooms can minimize contamination levels in these areas,
especially in cases where control of workroom contaminants is not feasible.

Recommended Heat Stress Exposure Limits for

Heat-Acclimatized Workers
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Roof Ventilators
Roof ventilators serve as heat escape ports in buildings, and proper enclosure is essential for
weatherproofing. Various types of ventilator designs are available, each with its own advantages
and limitations. Continuous ventilation monitors are highly effective in removing substantial heat
loads, with streamlined continuous ventilators being efficient and weathertight options.
Gravity ventilators, while effective and cost-efficient, should primarily be used for heat control
rather than for controlling gaseous or aerosol contaminants. Careful attention to positive pressure
at the ventilators is necessary to prevent outside air from entering.
Energy Conservation, Recovery, and Sustainability
Energy conservation and recovery should be prioritized in industrial plants to minimize energy
consumption while ensuring life safety. Incorporating energy recovery into preliminary planning
can lead to substantial savings, provided it does not compromise safety requirements. Various
methods, including insulation of equipment, optimal operation of ventilation systems, and use of
energy recovery equipment, can contribute to energy conservation.
For instance, process and equipment insulation, along with heat shields, can minimize heat loads,
while air-to-air heat exchangers can recover building or process heat. System operation should be
optimized to balance energy savings with life safety requirements, with consideration given to
factors such as CO2-based demand control ventilation and recirculation systems for makeup air.
Monitoring and maintenance are essential for ensuring the effectiveness of energy recovery
systems while complying with safety regulations and standards.

Industrial Local Exhaust Systems

Introduction: Industrial environments often harbor airborne contaminants such as dust, fumes,
vapors, and gases, which can pose health hazards or create undesirable conditions. Industrial
exhaust ventilation systems play a crucial role in removing these pollutants while also enhancing
safety and maintaining operational efficiency. Compliance with relevant standards, such as
ASHRAE Standard 62.1 and NFPA standards, is essential to ensure workplace safety.
Local Exhaust Versus General Ventilation: Local exhaust systems, designed to capture pollutants
at their source, are often the most effective and economical method for controlling air pollutants
and excess heat. Compliance with occupational exposure limits necessitates capturing pollutants
within the worker's breathing zone. However, in cases where local exhaust is impractical, general
ventilation may be necessary to dilute pollutants and heat. The effectiveness of local exhaust
systems depends on factors such as hood design, positioning, and airflow dynamics.
Regulatory Compliance and Safety Precautions: Engineers and designers must adhere to
regulations set forth by authorities like NFPA, OSHA, and ANSI to ensure the safety of
industrial spaces. Special precautions should be taken in environments containing flammable,
combustible, or toxic substances to mitigate potential risks and safeguard worker health.
Local Exhaust Fundamentals: Local exhaust systems comprise essential components such as
hoods, ducted systems, air-cleaning devices, air-moving devices, and exhaust stacks. The
effectiveness of these systems depends on factors such as the type of contaminant source, hood
design, and system mobility.
System Classification: Understanding the process or operation is crucial for designing effective
local exhaust hood systems. Exhaust hoods can be classified based on their type (enclosing or
nonenclosing), mobility (stationary, movable, portable, or built-in), and effectiveness in
contaminant control.
Effectiveness of Local Exhaust: Optimizing hood design to achieve maximum contaminant
control while minimizing exhaust airflow is essential. Factors such as capture velocity, hood
volumetric flow rate, and airflow patterns influence the effectiveness of local exhaust systems.
Principles of Hood Design Optimization: Various design principles, including hood location,
hood size, and worker positioning, contribute to optimizing the performance of local exhaust
systems. Proper evaluation of airflow requirements and consideration of factors affecting air
movement are crucial for effective contaminant capture.
Conclusion: Industrial local exhaust systems play a critical role in maintaining safe and healthy
working environments by effectively removing airborne contaminants. Compliance with
regulatory standards and adherence to design principles are essential for ensuring the efficiency
and safety of these systems.

Enclosing and Nonenclosing

Hoods
Portable Fume Extractor with Built-
in Fan and Filter

Influence of Hood Location on Contamination of Air in the Operator’s Breathing Zone

Air Movement In The Vicinity Of Local Exhaust The air movement in front of a local exhaust
hood is influenced by various factors including the rate of exhaust airflow, the design of the
hood, its distance from surrounding surfaces, and the geometry of the hood itself. Figure 5
illustrates the velocity contours for an unflanged round duct hood. Studies have demonstrated
that velocity contours, expressed as a percentage of the hood entrance velocity, are similar for
hoods with similar geometry. Figure 6 depicts velocity contours for a rectangular hood with an
aspect ratio of 0.333, showcasing profiles resembling those of the round hood but more
elongated. When the aspect ratio drops below approximately 0.2 (0.15 for flanged openings), the
airflow pattern in front of the hood shifts from approximately spherical to cylindrical. Velocity
diminishes swiftly with distance from the hood; according to Dalla-Valle, the velocity reduction
follows an inverse square law concerning the distance from the suction inlet.

Fig. 5 Velocity Contours for Plain Round Opening Fig. 6 Velocity Contours for Plain
Rectangular Opening

Designers should account for side drafts and other air movements near the capture area of a local
exhaust hood. Studies by Caplan and Knutson found that air movements in front of laboratory
hoods could lead to the escape of contaminants into the breathing zone of operators. In industrial
settings, it's common to observe large fans blowing air onto workers situated in front of an
exhaust hood. However, this practice can render the local exhaust hood ineffective, failing to
provide adequate protection for the worker and their nearby colleagues.
Pressure Loss in Hoods and Ducts A vena contracta forms at the entrance of the hood or duct,
causing a pressure loss, quantified using the pressure loss coefficient Co or a static pressure entry
loss (ACGIH 2013). As air enters a hood, it incurs a pressure loss, known as hood entry loss,
which may comprise various components depending on the complexity of the hood. Simple
hoods typically have a single pressure loss coefficient CL, defined as the static pressure divided
by the velocity pressure. Thus, the static pressure equals the negative of the velocity pressure.
The static pressure in the hood or duct includes the static pressure (velocity pressure) plus the
head loss, expressed as a fraction of the velocity pressure. The loss coefficient CL is distinct
from the hood entry loss coefficient Co, which relates to duct total pressure loss and duct
velocity pressure. Bernoulli's equation suggests that hood total pressure approaches zero at the
hood entrance, resulting in a static pressure increase within the hood duct due to the velocity
pressure.
Loss coefficients for various hood shapes are provided in Figure 7. For tapered hoods, an
optimum hood entry angle of 45° minimizes entry loss, but practical limitations may necessitate
a 90° angle, typical for many tapered hoods with rectangular openings.
Example 1 illustrates the calculation of suction pressure for a nonenclosing side-draft flanged
hood. The suction pressure in this scenario incorporates both losses occurring at the slot and duct
entry locations.
For compound hoods like multislot hoods, losses must be analyzed differently. The slots
distribute air over the hood face without affecting capture efficiency. Slot velocity typically
should be around 2000 fpm, with plenum velocities typically at 50% of slot velocities to achieve
proper distribution at minimal energy cost.
More detailed information on loss factors and exhaust ductwork design can be found in Chapter
21 of the 2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals, ACGIH (2013), and Brooks (2001).
Other Components Of Local Exhaust Systems
Duct Design and Construction The duct, the second component of a local exhaust system,
transports contaminated air from the hood(s). Round ducts are preferred for their uniform
velocity distribution and ability to withstand higher static pressures. Rectangular or flat oval
ducts are used when design constraints necessitate, with the aspect ratio ideally close to unity.
Minimum transport velocity refers to the velocity required to transport particles without settling,
varying based on the nature of contaminants. Table 2 provides some accepted transport velocities
for different types of contaminants. Design velocities can exceed minimum transport velocities
but should never fall significantly below.

Sidedraft Hood and Slot Hood on Tank

Hood on Bench
Elbows with a centerline radius-to-diameter ratio greater than 1.5 are suitable for systems
conveying particles, as lesser ratios may cause abrasion. For systems with substantial future
capacity increases, open-end stub branches in the main duct can help maintain required transport
velocities.
Duct construction considerations include the use of thicker material for elbows, especially when
conveying abrasives, and the inclusion of cleanout openings for access to the duct interior in case
of blockage.
Air Cleaners Air-cleaning equipment selection depends on various factors such as emissions
standards compliance, prevention of reentrainment, material reclamation, and protection of
neighboring areas. Contaminant type, characteristics, removal efficiency, disposal method, and
air stream properties also influence equipment selection.
Pressure loss from the cleaner must be factored into overall system pressure calculations. Some
fabric filters may experience increased loss over time, necessitating incorporation of maximum
pressure drop into system design.
Air-Moving Devices Fans, typically used as air-moving devices, are selected based on
contaminant type and concentration, required pressure rise, and noise levels. Proper fan
connection to the system is described in AMCA Publication 201. Fans should ideally be located
downstream of air cleaners to minimize abrasion and maintain negative pressure within the
exhaust system.
Energy Recovery for Sustainability Energy transfer from exhausted air to replacement air may be
feasible depending on exhaust and replacement air duct locations, exhaust gas temperature, and
contaminant nature. Heat transfer efficiency varies based on the type of heat recovery system
employed. Compatibility with exhaust pollutants and prevention of cross-contamination are
critical considerations when selecting energy recovery equipment.
Exhaust Stacks Exhaust stack design and location aim to prevent reentrainment of discharged air
into supply system inlets. The stack's minimum height requirement ensures discharged air
remains above worker breathing zones. No-loss stack head designs are recommended for rain
protection, while weather caps should be avoided due to increased reentrainment risk.
Instrumentation and Controls Industrial exhaust systems may require airflow verification and
performance indicators for failure detection. Other instrumentation needs may include dust
collector level indication, fire detection, and interfaces with process control systems. Electrical
safety and code requirements must be met for electrical devices in hazardous locations.
OPERATION: System Testing and Balancing Upon installation, exhaust systems should be
tested and balanced to ensure proper operation and compliance with codes. Testing also provides
baseline data for future maintenance and capacity assessments. Detailed testing methods